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1) Mee) ee a FOP ihe a tee oe eT 


A METHOD OF DIRECTING CHILDREN’S 
STUDY OF GEOGRAPHY 


BY 
EDWIN HEWETT REEDER, Pu.D. 


TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 
CONTRIBUTIONS TO Epucation, No. 193 


BUREAU @F PUBLICATIONS 
Cearhers College, Columbia University 
NEW YORK CITY 
1925 


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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 


For guidance and encouragement in this study, the writer 
acknowledges his deep indebtedness to his dissertation com- 
mittee, Professors Milo B. Hillegas, Frank M. McMurry, Arthur 
I. Gates and Edward H. Reisner, of Teachers College. 

Grateful appreciation for assistance in the classroom work of 
the experiments is due the following principals and teachers: 

Miss Harriet E. Porritt and Miss Helen R. Smith, Speyer 
School, New York City; Mr. Archibald Marcus, Public School 
43, New York City; Miss Marie Hennes, Miss Elma Lister and 
Mrs. Catherine Billings, Hackensack, New Jersey; Miss May- 
belle Steele, Stamford, Connecticut; Mr. Paul: Fleming, Roselle, 
New Jersey; and Miss 8. Margaret Crisman, Passaic, New Jersey. 


HK. H.R. 


ill 





CONTENTS 


CHAPTER PAGE 
I. Previous STUDIES IN THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY 1 
II. TracH1nc PRoBLEMS PERTINENT TO THIS INVESTI- 
LATA fe el RTA LAD AB TARE og agree od OR RAR Poet 4 
II]. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE QUESTIONS USED IN THis 
PRES GORY MIX PIORTALION DS Vester ee oc ble) oie banat ae 21 
TV. EXPERIMENTS IN SPEYER SCHOOL .....:........... Pe 
VO EXPERIMENT AT Pusiic ScHOOL 43 . 0202 ...08000 00. 36 
VI. SUPPLEMENTARY EXPERIMENTS IN Passaic, ROSELLE 
IVP eS DAMN toate Nathan ye Ot kitts 2 Nan BF 
VII. Report or Work aT HACKENSACK ............... 38 
VIII. Summary or FINDINGS AND THEIR APPLICATION 42 
APPENDIX 
I. Stupy QuEstions on Human Geography .......... A7 
II. Stupy QueEsTions on Advanced Geography ......... 78 
MEA TET ICA Trl A BLOGS 4 code. siiclic-e soy os acen bcs dca w tbe nec 89 
PD mn PEP Oa Le ke km Lome day 97 


V 





A METHOD OF DIRECTING CHILDREN’S 
STUDY OF GEOGRAPHY 


CHAPTER I 


PREVIOUS STUDIES 
IN THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY 


Geography in the elementary school, like any other subject in 
the program of studies, offers to the student of education a twofold 
opportunity for scientific investigation. On the one hand, there 
is the question of what should be taught, that is, the curriculum. 
To a large extent, the content of the elementary school course of 
study may be determined by discovering what items of geographical 
information are important to the average adult citizen, and several 
investigations of this type have been made. On the other hand, 
there is the question of how to teach this information. This field— 
the field of method—would seem to be at least as worthy of study 
as that of the curriculum. Although individual pieces of research 
must of necessity stress only one phase of the total teaching prob- 
lem, yet an entire program of scientific inquiry which does not 
embrace questions concerning both curriculum and method is to 
that extent incomplete. 

The present situation in the field of elementary geography 
represents just this one-sided development. Several curricular 
studies of importance have been published in the last ten years. 
In 1915 Bagley conducted a pioneer investigation to determine 
“minimum essentials in geography and history.’”?! Samplings of 
several magazines over a period of seven years formed the basis 
for a count of references to different continents, countries and 
bodies of water. On the basis of this count, the relative importance 
of the items was determined. A similar study is reported by Char- 
ters,? the results of which are much like those of Bagley’s inves- 
tigation. Branom and Reavis? in 1918 used the values of imports 
and exports as the criterion of importance for countries of the 
world, and published a list of the different nations in order of 
their rank. 

1 Fourteenth Yearbook, National Society for the Study of Education, Part 1, pp. 131-39. 


2 Charters, W. W. Curriculum Construction, pp. 270-72. Macmillan, 1923. 
3 Seventeenth Yearbook, National Society for the Study of Education, Part 1, Chap. 3. 


1 


2 A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


The most ambitious studies of this general type are those of 
Washburne,‘ and of Rugg and Hockett.> Whereas the former 
used only the frequency of mention of geographic locations in 
newspapers and magazines, the latter employed seventeen criteria 
as follows: 1) Bank clearings; 2) Foreign trade; 3) Population; 
4) Area; 5) Relative number of magazine articles published from 
1919 to 1923, dealing with various types of locations; 6) Frequency 
of use by frontier thinkers in critical treatises; 7) Frequency of 
use by writers in critical journals; 8) Washburne’s study; 9) 
Statistics of freight tonnage handled at United States ports; 10) 
Value of total commerce of world ports; 11) Number of miles of 
railroad track operated; 12) Total of operating expenses and 
operating revenue; 13) Percentage of world’s output of important 
minerals; 14) Amount of traffic carried over ocean lanes of trade; 
15) Percentage of population engaged in manufacturing; 16) Areas 
of dense population; 17) Areas of production of agricultural goods. 

There is no question as to the great value of these studies. The 
substitution of objective criteria for theory and opinion marks an 
important advance in the teaching of geography. But it should 
be noted that these are entirely curricular investigations. In no 
case does the classroom situation enter into them. ‘The teacher 
knows better than formerly what geographical facts his pupils 
should learn; but he is still at a loss as to how they shall acquire 
the knowledge, for the field of method is deplorably barren of 
scientific work. Rugg has applied present-day knowledge of the 
learning process to the memorization of map locations, and to 
that extent has suggested a technique of teaching. He does not, 
however, report any experiment in which this technique has been 
put to scientific test. Courtis has made a study® of the effect of 
supervision on the learning of geographical locations as determined 
by his geography tests, but he does not discuss the changes in 
classroom method which supervision effected and which improved 
the children’s scores. One searches in vain the pages of journals 
of education for reports of controlled experiments in teaching 
method in geography. 

Although there has been an advance in general educational 
method in the last few decades, it does not seem safe to assume 


4 Twenty-Second Yearkoom National Society for the Study of Education, pp. 216-33. 

5 Rugg, Harold and Hockett, John. Objective Studies of Map Locations. The Lincoln School 
of Teachers College, Columbia University, 1925. 

8 School and Society, November, 1919, 


Previous Studies in Teaching Geography 3 


for this reason that correct teaching techniques in geography will 
take care of themselves when once the content has been established. 
In other subjects of the elementary school curriculum, method 
has received much attention. The teaching of arithmetic, of 
spelling, of penmanship and of reading, for instance, has been 
subjected to numerous controlled experiments by which classroom 
procedure has been modified and improved. Moreover, it is well 
recognized that the average teacher has great difficulty in applying 
a general principle to a specific situation. That children should 
take a problem-solving attitude in the study of their geography 
lessons, for example, is a principle generally accepted by theorists 
in the field of method; but the average teacher is at a loss when, 
in assigning a lesson in the geography of a country, she wishes her 
pupils to apply the principle in action. On the student of edu- 
cation, therefore, lies the burden of translating a modern 
philosophy of education into such teaching techniques as will be 
intelligible and practicable to the average teacher. 


CHAPTER II 


TEACHING PROBLEMS PERTINENT 
a TO THIS INVESTIGATION 


A 

we The object of the present investigation is to search for a technique 
(¥ which will improve the pupils’ method of studying the geography 
textbook in the upper grades of the elementary school. While 
there has recently been a somewhat pronounced movement against 
a too slavish adherence to textbooks, yet teachers recognize their 
value if properly used. Under almost any teaching method, the 
reading of assignments in the basal text plays some part in con- 
nection with a given unit of subject matter. Any technique, there- 
fore, which will improve such reading will be of assistance to 

teachers of geography. 

For some time objectively scorable questions have been used 
to determine the quality of silent reading. Silent reading tests, 
however, have not been employed, except incidentally, as a means 
of teaching. It appeared to the writer that the systematic use of 

such questions in connection with the reading of a text might im- 
1, prove the quality of study in geography, and the present inves- 
\ tigation was undertaken to determine the truth or falsity of this 
a eae! 

For the purposes of this investigation, two geography textbooks 
were used, namely Advanced Geography by McMurry and Parkins, 
and Human Geography by J. Russell Smith. 

Objectively scorable study questions on portions of these books 

y were made by the experimenter, and in general the experimental 
procedure was to assign these parts of the texts to two groups of 
pupils; giving the questions to one group, and simply requiring 
the other group to study the same subject matter. In both cases 

the same true-false test was used to determine the efficiency of the 
pupils’ work from the standpoint of what facts were learned. 

The proponent of any new technique in the field of teaching 
method has a double duty to perform. He must, of course, show 
by scientific means that his method will work: that it will do 
what he claims for it. To show this conclusively it is obligatory 

a 


Problems Pertinent to This Investigation 5 


that he use the procedure of a controlled experiment and that he 
test his data by established measures of reliability. 

His second duty, however, cannot be so scientifically discharged. 
In order to eliminate variables and to reduce a problem to a 
workable unit, it is necessary that only a small fraction of the 
total teaching process in any subject be put to the test. That is 
to say, the complete teaching method in geography is like a com- 
pleted edifice built up of many individual stones, each stone rep- 
resenting one unit of the total structure. Ideally, each stone 
would have been put to scientific test and its worth thus established. 
In any subject at the present time, however, the teaching edifice 
represents a mixture composed of some stones which have been 
objectively determined and others which have been subjectively 
hewn by the tools of philosophical ideals, professional experience, 
logic or sound common sense. Of the latter sort are most of the 
stones in the geography building. 

However much this situation may be deplored, it must be 
accepted at the present time; and the experimenter must show 


not only that his technique will work, but also that it fits reasonably , _. 


well into the teaching edifice already in use. His only alternative 
is to tear down the entire building and reconstruct it about his 
one experimentally determined stone. If he does this, his chances 
of being right may be greater—possibly—but his new structure 
is likely to fall into decay unnoticed; for the teaching profession 
must welcome new ways of work or else those new ways are doomed 
to oblivion. 

The value of the new technique then, from the standpoint of 
whether it does what it is expected to do, may be determined 
objectively; but its worth as a part of the teaching method as a 
whole is more nearly a question of judgment. Such worth, how- 
ever, should not for that reason be ignored, and the purpose of 
the present chapter is to present a statement, based on reason 
and analogy, of the use of objectively scorable study questions 
in the teaching of geography. 


The study questions used in this investigation constitute a ‘ 


form of lesson assignment. The writer recognizes fully the fact 
that the subject of lesson assignments is a moot point among 
educational theorists. But the question may well be raised as 
to whether some of this disagreement may not be due to a failure 
to recognize various types of assignments. No one would think 


6 <A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


of asserting that food builds fat or that food builds bone, without 
specifying which kind of food is meant. Since the reaction hy- 
pothesis indicates that the mind is not a unified entity but a 
complex mass of individually developed bonds, it follows first 
that different kinds of assignments will produce different varieties 
of mental growth; and second that the well-rounded student is 
the one who is trained through several types of assignments to a 
flexibility of attack on subject matter. 

Whether or not this point of view be recognized in principle, 
it is in fact in most progressive classrooms. In geography there 
are assignments which call for map drawing, for study of questions, 
for reading to report to the class, for reading required for a reci- 
tation period, for making graphs and charts, for preparing a debate, 
for giving a stereopticon lesson, and so forth. Each of these 
requires in its preparation a different emphasis from all of the 
others. Assignments will vary also according to the kind of 
method which a teacher is using. An assignment by a teacher 
who is using the problem method of attack may not be the same 
as that by a teacher who is using a type-study method. 

At first thought then, a contribution to the problem of lesson 
assignments in general would appear to be well-nigh impossible. 
But running through all of these different approaches to subject 
matter is an element which at one time constituted the only kind 
of assignment, namely a careful reading of the textbook. Whether 
it comes at the beginning of the study of a given topic or at the 
and; whether it precedes or follows the determination and accept- 
ance of a problem; whether it is a topical or a page-to-page pro- 
cedure, the careful reading of the text somewhere occurs in the 
teaching process in a given unit of work. If this be admitted, then 
it must be self-evident that any means of improving this reading 
is a contribution to teaching method in geography, whatever that 
method may be. 

The objective scorability of the study questions under discussion 
gives rise to another sort of value in connection with the general 
problem of lesson assignments. This value is based upon the 
psychological law of effect. As stated by Gates,! this law is as 
follows: 

“The individual tends to repeat and learn quickly those re- 
actions which are accompanied or followed by a satisfying state 


1Gates, A. I. Psychology for Students of Education, p. 230. Macmillan, 1923. 


Problems Pertinent to This Investigation 7 


of affairs. The individual tends not to repeat or learn quickly 
those reactions which are accompanied or followed by an annoying 
state of affairs.”’ 

The purpose of assignments is to produce mental activity which 
results in learning. An application of the law of effect therefore 
would demand that a teacher attach satisfaction to those responses 
in the lesson assignment which are correct or desirable, and 
annoyance to those which are incorrect or undesirable. Teachers 
have done this in the past in two ways—through questions in 
class and through examinations. But these two ways appear 
inadequate to the writer when compared to the amount of learning 
which the lesson assignments are expected to produce. 

First, let us examine class questions as a means of exercising 
the law of effect. For public schools, forty pupils is a representa- 
tive number for a class, and thirty minutes for a lesson period. 
If the teacher tries to test each member of the class in this period, 
in order to attach satisfaction or annoyance to the responses, she 
may ask each pupil one question and receive his response. In 
this case, she has asked forty questions, at intervals of forty-five 
seconds. While forty-five seconds might allow for a reasonably 
important unit of subject matter for the individual question, yet 
every child is tested on only one point of the total lesson. If the 
teacher asks two questions per pupil, she must ask one question 
every twenty-two and one-half seconds. This means that the 
questions will have to become more specific, and cover a less 
important unit of subject matter. Still each pupil is tested on 
only a small fraction of the lesson; satisfaction or annoyance 
has been attached to but two responses. If each pupil is asked 
three questions, the time for each question is diminished to 
seven and one-half seconds, and four questions brings the length 
of the individual question and response to five and five-eighths 
seconds. Only trivial or purely factual material is likely to be 
covered where so small a unit of time is available for question and 
answer. And yet even if four questions per pupil are asked, 
each child would be tested on but a very small part of the total 
assignment. 

The writer realizes that in imagining the hypothetical recitation 
periods above, he is creating an entirely artificial situation which 
would not prevail in any actual classroom. But the calculations 
do show that the recitation period as a means of testing adequately 


8 A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


the result of an assignment in geography and of providing success- 
fully for the law of effect is doomed to failure. 

What happens in actual practice is that a few pupils—and they 
are usually the brighter ones who need it the least—are most 
lively in class discussion, while some pupils may escape with 
practically no participation at all. Day after day may go by with 
little or no application of the law of effect in the study of their 
geography lessons. 

Another factor is of importance in this connection. For some 
time educators have been dissatisfied with the whole conception 
of the recitation as a testing period. In 1909, Professor McMurry 
urged that the recitation period be made a thinking rather than 
a testing period.” This ideal has found general acceptance among 
educational theorists. Not only, then, is the recitation period 
unsatisfactory as a testing period, but to use it as such is out of 
harmony with the best educational thought of the day. 

Do examinations supply the necessary satisfaction for well 
prepared lessons or annoyance for poorly prepared ones? In a 
measure, they do. But the use of class periods for examination 
purposes curtails to that degree the time for class discussion and 
group thinking. If the examinations are held only at long intervals, 
they are likely to operate unsatisfactorily as motivation for the 
daily preparation of lessons, for it is a generally accepted principle 
of psychology that a stimulus, to be effective with children, must 
be immediate rather than remote. 

Some other means, then, than the recitation period or exami- 
nations should be found in geography to supply the daily require- 
ments of the law of effect in the preparation of assignments. In — 
this respect, geography lags behind several of the other subjects 
in the elementary school curriculum. Assignments in arithmetic, 
for example, usually consist of problems which illustrate the prin- 
ciples discussed in class. Through the activities of the recitation 
period or through answer books, children ascertain exactly how 
effectively they executed the assignment, because they know how 
many problems they solved correctly. Satisfaction is thereby 
attached to correct methods of work which result in right 
answers. 

For a long time the law of effect has been operative in the 
teaching of spelling. Going to the foot of the class on missing a 

2McMurry, F. M. How to Study, p. 81. Houghton, Mifflin, 1909. 


Problems Pertinent to This Investigation 9 


word in the days when spelling classes “‘toed the crack”? and 
spelled orally was a means of attaching annoyance to wrong 
responses; while the pupil who held the position of head of the 
spelling class against all the others experienced daily the attach- 
ment of satisfaction to correct responses. Although the modus 
operand of the spelling lesson today has changed in many respects, 
yet frequent if not daily tests, and class and individual scores 
and graphs of progress still apply the law of effect. 

The penmanship scale has made the same sort of work possible 
also in the teaching of handwriting. In Detroit, for instance, 
each child knows exactly what the required norm for his grade is, 
both in quality and in speed. His daily practice very frequently 
ends in a test, in which he writes a sample to show his best speed 
and quality. He then counts the letters himself, enters the number 
in a record book, grades the quality of his work on the penmanship 
scale, and enters that also. He then compares these marks with 
the norms for his grade. Whether he is above or below these 
norms, the fact of objective scores makes the law of effect operative. 
How much more likely is this procedure to produce a satisfying 
or annoying state of affairs than that under which most of us 
learned to write, when a copy was set before us and we were told 
to write ‘‘the very best we could”’! 

There is probably another value to the objectively scorable 
study questions in that they appeal to the universal interest in 
puzzles. This appeal probably has its roots in what Thorndike 
calls “the general enjoyment of success rather than failure in an 
enterprise to which one has set oneself.” In another place he calls 
it ‘the interest in achievement” and states that it “is stronger 
in children than is often realized.’”?* They like to overcome 
difficulties or to solve problems, but in order to appeal to this 
interest, an exercise should possess certain characteristics. It 
must not be too hard or else the children will become discouraged 
and lose interest in an enterprise in which they think failure is 
certain. On the other hand, it must not be too easy, for then there 
is no great satisfaction in accomplishment. The problem must 
not require too long a time for its solution, as children lose interest 
in issues which are not sharply defined and briefly settled. Prob- 
ably much of the problem study in geography falls short at this 
point; the teacher may see clearly the conclusion of the work on a 

*’ Thorndike, E. L. Psychology of Arithmetic, p. 197. Rand, McNally, 1921. 


10 A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


unit of subject matter but children are likely to be lost in the 
mass of detail necessary to reach it. 

Finally, the fact of success or failure must not be left in doubt 
or uncertainty; pupils must know whether or not they have 
satisfactorily accomplished their tasks, or reached their goals in 
an activity which they have undertaken. 

Such are the characteristics of those activities which enlist the 
eager attention of children and frequently of adults. The craze in 
the last few months for the cross-word puzzle is a case in point; 
while the long-established popularity of puzzle departments in 
newspapers and periodicals, of guessing games, charades and the 
like, gives further evidence of the universality of the interest 
under discussion. 

In the teaching of geography in the past, little appeal has been 
made to this tendency, except, as stated above, through questions 
in class and through examinations. The objectively scorable 
study questions, however, utilize it, not on a small fraction of the 
assignment as in the case of class questioning, but on all of the 
major points of the lesson; not at infrequent intervals as in the 
case of examinations, but in the work of every day when textbook 
study is part of the assignment. 

In recent years, much enthusiasm has been shown both by 
teachers and by educational theorists for the approach to geo- 
graphical material through the problem method. Under this 
method, the unit of study and teaching, instead of being a topic 
or a certain number of pages, consists of a problem which appeals 
to the children’s interests and the solution of which involves the 
study of a worthwhile unit of subject matter. For example, a 
class in the Horace Mann School recently approached the topic 
“Alaska”’ through this problem: ‘‘Did the United States make a 
wise investment when she purchased Alaska?”’ 

Of the problem method of treatment, Professor McMurry says: 


“The crying need in geography in recent years has been to get away from 
the encyclopedic presentation of facts, The encyclopedic treatment makes a 
list of topics, such as location, surface features, climate, products, etc.,—the 
centers of attention, and offers under each heading whatever facts the specialist 
in the field thinks valuable. It largely ignores the relative value of facts and 
their bearing on the child. Its point of view is that of the well informed 
scientist who imposes upon the learner whatever facts the latter’s distant 
future good may seem to require. 

“In contrast, modern educational theory makes the learner’s present 


Problems Pertinent to This Investigation 11 


interests and needs the starting point in instruction. It demands that, in a 
field like geography, those problems which have general value and which are 
so intimately related to the child as to promise to make a strong appeal to 
him be first sought out. Then the facts necessary for their solution should be 
offered. 

“Good study, or good thinking requires first that live questions be raised 
for consideration; then that facts be collected, evaluated and organized until 
forceful and valuable conclusions be reached. That is what all efficient 
people in active life do when they ‘think’; and one of the chief duties of the 
school is to accustom children to that procedure.’ 4 


Some time ago the writer taught a class in fifth grade geography 
over a period of several weeks in order to ascertain what are the 
greatest difficulties with the problem method of teaching ge- 
ography. From this experience he reached the conclusion, since 
confirmed by many conversations with geography teachers, that 
two of the most difficult questions to answer in using this method 
are: (1) By what method and at what time in the teaching process 
on a given unit of subject matter should a study problem arise?; 
and (2) How may essential facts be acquired without too much 
rambling discussion and loss of time? 

The first of these questions is particularly troublesome. ‘The 
writer does not presume to state that he has found in the objectively 
scorable study questions the best solution to it; for various sorts 
of solutions have yet to be put to the test of scientific investigation. 
But he believes that he has found one solution which is at least 
worthy of consideration by teachers who are struggling with this 
difficulty. 

Heretofore many teachers have acted on the theory that since 
the study problem is the unifying force around which subject 
matter is organized, therefore the selection of the problem should 
occur at the beginning of the work on a given topic. For instance, 
the first assignment on the Argentine Republic in a fifth-grade 
class was, ‘‘ Look at the maps and pictures and go through Argen- 
tina in McMurry’s geography and write five questions that are 
suggested by what you read, by maps and pictures, by what is 
interesting and what is big. Cross your biggest question and be 
able to prove that your crossed question is a good question.” ® 

Of late, some objections have been raised to the theory that the 
problem is the starting point of work on a portion of geography. 


4 McMurry, F. M. and Parkins, A. E. Advanced Geography. Preface. Macmillan, 1921 
5 Stenographic Reports of Lessons, p. 40. Teachers College Bureau of Publications, 1924 


12 A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


Mr. Stull, associate in geography at Teachers College, Columbia 
University, has stated in elass that children at the beginning of 
their study of a country do not have a sufficiently wide factual 
background to enable them to select problems intelligently. In 
discussing the same subject recently, both Professors McMurry 
and Hillegas have made the same sort of statements, giving as 
their opinion that it is likely that a problem of real value can be 
discovered and stated only after a careful preliminary study of a 
subject. If then, line A—B represents the total amount of time 


ACoG D E B 


spent on Argentina, for instance, the problem, instead of being 
formulated at C might better be formulated at D or E. The 
whole question is, of course, still in the realm of speculation; the 
optimum time for the selection of the problem for study presents 
a fertile field for experimental work. Although the present inquiry 
cannot hope to answer the question, it can offer help to teachers 
who agree with the authorities quoted above, by giving them a 
method of attacking the textbook before the selection of the study 
problem; a method which is psychologically sound, which appeals 
to fundamental tendencies and which is effective in producing 
more accurate and careful silent reading than did the old method 
of telling children to ‘‘study their books.” 

We come now to the second difficulty in the technique of 
problem study, namely, that of securing the acquisition of essential 
facts without too much loss of time and rambling discussion. In 
order to make this issue perfectly clear, a copy of a stenographic 
report of a lesson in geography is given for analysis. 

Who ean state clearly to our visitors this morning what we are doing— 
something about the work we are doing? 
Well, we are studying the New England States. We were trying 
to answer the question: Why do they manufacture so many... 
5 so much material when they haven’t got the material to manu- 
facture? 
Yes—and before we could answer that question, what did we feel 
we had to know? 
Different ones are making reports from different books on dif- 
10 ferent things, wool, leather and lumber, and... . 
In other words, we are trying to get an idea of how great a manufactur- 
ing center it is; and today, boys and girls have looked up the different 
kinds of manufacturing that are done in New England and are going 
to try to get some idea of the amount and different kinds. 
15 Who is ready to report? All right, James. 


20 


25 


30 


35 


40 


45 


50 


55 


60 


Problems Pertinent to This Investigation 13 


Well, my report is on fishing in New England. (Reads from written 
report) Gloucester is the greatest fishing center in the world. 
Fishing is a dangerous occupation. . 

Excuse me just a minute for interrupting, James, will you? Please 

open your books to the map so that you can locate these places as he 

mentions them. 
The fishing in Gloucester is especially dangerous. The men go 
out to Newfoundland, and the two currents, the Gulf Stream 
and the Labrador, form a part. The Gulf Stream current is very 
quiet and warm compared to the Labrador current, which comes 
from the Arctic Ocean; and these men will go out in boats called 
“‘dories”’ to take the fish from the trawls. They will be out and 
pretty soon a fog will form and lots of them godown atsea. Some- 
times they get found by schooners but lots of times they don’t. In 
olden days before they did fishing on such a big scale the men went 
out in their dories and fished by themselves; and now they go out 
in schooners with nets and lines about a mile long and fish. And the 
land . . . when a person’s land runs right down to the water, for 
three miles out it belongs to them and out farther it belongs to the 
world. And on Decoration Day when they decorate the graves— 
I mean instead of decorating the graves, they strew flowers all over 
the water. Lots of times when you go on a visit to Gloucester 
there will be a crowd gathered, and that means . . . it shows that 
something unusual has happened. Usually, it is a fishing vessel 
has come in. And in this crowd you will see lots of women dressed 
in black, in mourning because their husbands or fathers have gone 
down, or their older brothers, who are old enough to go out and 
fish. 
These banks are very good fishing places because they are really 
plains. They go under the water for about nine feet; and the 
little fish come up there, and the cod and mackerel come up and 
feed on these fish. 
The way they get the cod—they anchor the schooner and all that 
are left on the schooner are just the cook and the engineer who 
trims the sails because they have sails in the newer vessels and little 
gasoline engines to help them along when there is not much wind. 
And they’re used too when it is too swift and they want to slow 
the vessel down. They go out in their boat—a boat that belongs 
to the schooner and have lines about a mile long and have them 
all hooked up with corks and lines. They anchor one end of the 
line to one mast and the other to another. They have several of 
these lines and they go later to get them. And then there is just 
a mass of fish; all over the deck is about waist deep in cod. And 
then they shovel them on to ladders. They cut off their heads and 
split them from their neck to tail and throw them to a man who 
puts them in salt water. And not one man can go to bed until all 
are cleaned and dressed. Then they put salt on the trays and put 
the fish in the salt and rub them around until they are well salted 
and dress them and put them in barrels. 


14 
65 


70 


75 


80 


85 


90 


95 


100 


105 


110 


A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


And with the mackerel they go out in boats with nets about a mile 
wide—around—they are heavy things. There are nine oarsmen 
and the pilot and the captain and the man who works the net, and 
the cook and engineer are left on the vessel or the schooner to trim 
the sails and the cook to get a hot supper ready and warm beds. 
And the engineer is supposed to follow about a mile behind because 
the fishing is a hard job and they get awful nervous. When they 
are about to catch the fish they go out and find where they think 
there ought to be a school of mackerel, and when they see a school, 
they catch as many as they can in the net. 

Any one want to ask James any question? 
It isn’t a question, but is it in New Bedford after they get the whales, 
that they blow them out and look like balloons? 

Well, do we have whale fishing on the New England coast? What is 

most of our fishing there? 
Cod and mackerel. 

Do they go whaling, James, often? 
They start out from the New England coast. New Bedford is a 
great whaling port. 

I thought some of you would want to ask James about one or two 

things. 
I would like to know how many small boats belong to a schooner. 
Well, I should say they don’t use small boats any more, that is, 
dories; and in schooners they use larger boats than dories. 

Where did you get all that information? 
I got it out of here (holding up a book). I could have gotten a 
lot more. There is so much of it. 

Any one want to ask a question? 
It isn’t a question, it’s a statement. But for three miles out from 
the coast of New England all‘of that coast really belongs to the 
United States and any one can fish along there and beyond that 
other nations can fish. 
No, it belongs to the person who owns the land. 
Well, that is what it said in Allen. 

What is it? 
I haven’t a question either, but I have that same point that James 
did only I didn’t have as much. I found that they do use the 
little boats far out for fishing—they use schooners—but they use 
quite a lot near the land for other kinds of fisheries. I can’t quite 
remember what kinds they use, but they are a sort of tug boats. 
I even saw them in the English Channel when I went over. 
I had a point about fishing. There is more cod fishing than any 
other kind, and mackerel, herring and blue fish are also caught 
along the coast of New England. In Gloucester, they manufac- 
ture things that the sailors need, such as lines, nets, and other 
things. Formerly, they used to get a great many fish that weren’t 
small fish up around Southern Canada, and each man used to use 
a dory, but now they don’t fish so much there but they do more 


115. 


120 


125 


130 


135 


140 


145 


150 


155 


160 


Problems Pertinent to This Investigation 15 


deep sea fishing; and a deep sea fisherman is provided with pro- 
visions, nets, lines, baits, and other necessities. And many sailors 
go off to the banks of Newfoundland where the banks are shallow, 
and shallow water is the home of many small fish; and for this 
reason the big fisherman goes there. 
That is very good. Have we something else important? 
I have some pictures to show. 
Will you leave those for the present? We are really considering New 
England as a manufacturing center. Have we a right to take the fish 
then as one of our topics? 
Yes. 
Because they manufacture a lot of things from fish, and they manu- 
facture different things that come from the fish. There are tons of 
refuse for fertllizer that they use, ‘there is a lot of fertilizer neces- 
HOry.) 5. 
And I have smelled some other kind of factory up there. 
Glue. 
And that fish glue doesn’t smell very nice while it is being prepared. 
Then I suppose we could speak of the canning of fish almost as a manu- 
factured product. R told us in the first place that we wondered 
especially about New England being a manufacturing center because 
they had so few of the raw products for manufacturing. Would you 
say that held true in the case of fish? 
But it doesn’t have any coal so that to a certain extent it will hold 
true in all manufacturing. 
But with the fish to a less extent than with the other things. Who else 
is ready to report? 
I have a different one—wool (Has samples of wool in different 
stages on small paper charts). Thisis... 
Wait a minute. I think we should keep in mind that we are trying to 
find out about the manufacturing of New England. 
This is one of the manufactures of New England. This wool, 
comes from the western states—right off the sheep’s back. Then 
it is washed and scoured, and here it is washed and scoured and 
ready for combing. Here it is combed, and when you see a lot of 
it that has been combed it looks like cotton. It is in strands like 
hairs. And this is ready for spinning. Here it is spun into the 
regular yarn, and it is ready for dyeing. Here are some dyed 
pieces of wool and they are ready for weaving. Here’s a piece that 
shows how it looks as it is woven—the way the strands go this way 
and that way; and here is a piece of woolen cloth. 
Piece of what? 
Woolen cloth, ready to cut and be made into clothes. 
In the first grade we made some of those, and we learned there 
are two kinds. The warp and woof they call them. 
How do you come to know so much about wool and where did you get 
your samples? 
My father is in the business. 
Where is his factory? 


16 


165 


170 


175 


180 


185 


190 


195 


200 


205 


A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


Daddy hasn’t a factory. He just got these for me. 

Oh, he isn’t in the wool business. What do you mean? 
He sells pieces of goods but he doesn’t manufacture the cloth. He 
just has big pieces. 

Where does he get his big pieces from then? 
Well, Daddy gave me these and some men he knows gave him the 
others. 

But what I would like know is where Daddy gets his woolen cloth from. 
I will ask him. 

All right. I wish you would—the factory from which he buys most of 

his goods, whether or not it is in New England. 

Is there any one else who has anything to tell us about wool manufac- 

turing of New England? I would criticize E’s report—and not altogether 

favorably, I think. What has she failed to do? 
She has failed to tell us anything about the wool manufacturing. 

Yes, Jane, what are you to report on? 
Wool. 

All right, let’s hear you. 
The wool in the United States isn’t as fine as some wool. Some 
wool is finer—this wool is coarser than most. I don’t know why 
it is, unless it is different kinds of sheep, and different kinds of 
sheep have different kinds of wool. And over in Italy they have 
lots of it and it’s very fine wool and we import some here to manu- 
facture it. Some sheep are very good mutton and some are very 
good wool. It depends, I guess, on what kind of food they are 
given. Here I have a picture of the sheep as they are on the ranch; 
the next shows the sheep as they are sheared for their wool; then 
the wool is shipped to New England and other places on the eastern 
coast where it is made into cloth. In this way when the wool 
arrives at the factory, the wool is sorted according to value, because 
some wool is so much coarser and some wool is much finer, and the 
value depends on how coarse the wool is, or if it can be made into 
cloth easily. It also depends on how good the wool is. It is put 
into different piles, then the dirt is removed. So much dirt is in 
the wool that it has lost almost half of its weight. After being 
dried on racks and carded by a machine, which leaves all of the 
fibers even, and with a number of other processes, it is soon ready 
for spinning. One of those processes is dyeing. 

Do you know what would make that report far more interesting? 
If she didn’t read it. 

Yes, who has a report on wool, ready to tell us about it in an interesting 

way? 
Wyoming is the greatest sheep producing state. If they were 
passed in front of you, one by one, you could stand and count them, 
and you wouldn’t finish for four months, so you can see how many 
sheep there are in Wyoming. More than fifty million sheep are 
raised in the States, and more than half of the woolen cloth made 
in the United States is woven in New England. Therefore great 


210 


215 


220 


225 


230 


235 


240 


245 


250 


255 


Problems Pertinent to This Investigation 17 


quantities are sent there. Boston and London are the greatest 
wool markets of the world. Between three and five hundred mil- 
lions of dollars’ worth of wool are manufactured in New England 
and yet Great Britain manufactures a still greater quantity. 
There has been quite a lot of conflict between sheep and cattle 
owners. The sheep eat grass very close to the ground so that 
cattle can’t graze there. Also the sheep have a peculiar smell 
which the cattle don’t like. And therefore there has been a lot of 
conflict there. 
Was that report a good one? 
Yes. 
What was good about it? 
I was going to say something else about it. It was so much on the 
western states and not so much on New England. 
Well, she has told us considerable about the sheep in the western states, 
but she did tell us the important facts about New England. Who 
remembers? 
The biggest wool manufacturing centers. 
No, she did not say the greatest wool manufacturing centers were 
London and Boston. 
The greatest distributors. 
The greatest wool markets. They take the raw wool and distribute 
that, and then they take manufactured goods and distribute them, 
but they may not be the greatest manufacturing centers. We will 
carry that out a little later. 
Is there anything else on the subject of wool? Let’s think again of what 
J told us. What did she tell you that gives you an idea of the ex- 
tent of wool manufacturing in New England? 
That it is the greatest—next to Great Britain. 
Next to Great Britain, it is the greatest wool manufacturing district of 
the world. 
Right there they make about half of all the wool made in the 
United States. 
And Brockton makes about half of what is made in New England. 
I have something about sheep in the beginning. 
Does it bear directly on the New England situation? 
It goes on to say that they weren’t any sheep because during the 
glacier they were killed. 
I would say that they were killed by the glacier. That is hardly true. 
But they had to be brought from Asia. 
J said most of the wool comes from our own western states, Wyoming 
and Montana. Any of you find out about wool that comes from 
any other section of the world? Who has? We get a great deal from 
two other sources. 
Australia and Argentina. 
That is right. A great deal comes from those two places, 


18 <A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


This class was attempting to use the problem method. The 
lesson given was the second on the New England States. In the 
first, the teacher had asked for suggestions for problems, which 
elicited about a dozen from the class. The children had voted to 
accept the one quoted in the first paragraph in the lesson above, 
namely, ‘‘Why do they manufacture so much material when they 
haven’t the (raw) material to manufacture?” 

In lines 7 to 15, the teacher stated that before they could answer 
the main question they had to “get an idea of how great a manufac- 
turing center it (New England) is” and to look up “the different 
kinds of manufacturing that are done in New England,” and ‘“‘get 
some idea of the amount and different kinds.’”’ This, then, is the 
assignment which preceded the lesson quoted. 

\ No careful study of the basal text had previously taken place. 
/The class had been practically turned loose to browse anywhere 
they pleased. They naturally soon lost sight of the assignment 
‘in the collection of facts about the industries. For instance, in 
the discussion of fishing in lines 22 to 74, there are no statements 
of a quantitative nature to indicate that the pupil had been trying 
to “get an idea of the amount” of fishing done; nor are there 
evidences of the problem attitude or of thinking on the question 
stated in the assignment. The boy had simply read some material 
“which interested him and was telling about it. There was 
apparently no weighing of values of the facts presented, either 
in the lght of the assignment or according to any other 
criterion. 

In the discussion which follows, lines 75 to 98, no questions 
are asked by pupils or teacher which bring out the relation of the 
boy’s recitation to the main problem. 

In the recitation on wool, lines 144 to 170, more material is 
presented which is quite irrelevant to the main problem; indeed, 
the pupil did not even ask her father, from whom she received her 
information, whether the factory with which he was connected 
was located in New England. This is clear evidence that she had 
completely lost sight both of the main problem and of the assign- 
ment. 

The other two recitations on wool, lines 180 to 199 and 204 to 
218, deal more with the western states than with New England, 
) shewing again that the children were largely oblivious of the real 
points at issue. Moreover, it is indicated that the first child read 


Problems Pertinent to This Investigation 19 


her report; one wonders how much of it she or the class will 
retain. 

The sort of recitations given by the children are worthy of note 
from another point of view. Long ago we discarded in the ele- 
mentary school the method of instruction characterized by lectur- 
ing by the teacher; yet most of this lesson consists of lecturing 
by the pupils. There is no evidence that this is any more effective 
than lecturing by the teacher. 

The writer does not mean to imply in all of this criticism that 
children should never be allowed to browse and then tell the class 
about what they have read. But is does seem unreasonable to 
expect children to gain the essential facts about New England 
through a series of such lessons as the one given. 

The entire lesson is of a diffuse, unanalytical character; the 
questions asked by the pupils are few in number and are either 
trivial or off the point. To be sure; some of the most important 
facts about the New England States are mentioned in the dis- 
cussion, but they are so embedded in unessential details that they 
have little chance of being permanently retained. 

Although there are no data to prove it, it stands to reason that 
if the pupils had had the common body of important and essential 
information which would have resulted from an early study of 
the text, they would have had a better basis for evaluating and 
criticizing the reports that were given than they show evidence of 
having in the lesson under discussion; and those who reported 
would have had a better foundation for weighing the worth of the 
material on which they were preparing to report. 

Reference has already been made to the importance of making 
the recitation period a thinking rather than a testing exercise. 
But in practice, teachers sometimes forget that thinking cannot 
take place in a mental vacuum; that “successful reasoning depends 
upon an abundance of ideas, particular and general facts and 
principles. In reasoning, we pick and choose among facts; view 
this and that together. An eminent thinker once compared the 
situation during reasoning to two chambers, a main chamber in 
which manipulation and study were going on or in which the lead- 
ing ideas were being rehearsed, and an ante-chamber crowded 
with ideas seeking an entrance to the main room. Unless the 
ante-chamber were well filled, little could be done. The most 
hopeful sign of probable success was an ante-room teeming with 


20 <A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


candidates for a ‘trial’. If we are to become competent thinkers 
in any line, the first and, by all odds, the most important thing is 
to accumulate experience and master the facts in the field. With- 
out the facts and experience, the most gifted mind would be 
helpless. . . . Originality is not opposed to the amassing of facts 
or the laws of ordinary learning, but dependent upon them.’ ® 

The above statements do not, of course, mean that a student 
should spend most of his time in the collecting of facts with the 
vague hope that he may sometime have use for them in reasoning 
processes. But they do mean that if a teacher expects his pupils 
to select through intelligent class discussion a study problem about 
New England, for instance, and to reason about this question 
during the recitation, then preparation for such a thinking period 
must involve the acquisition of facts and ideas about New England. 

The assignment of acceptable objectively scorable study 
questions might be expected to engender such knowledge better 
than merely instructing children to ‘‘study the book.’’ Moreover, 
the teacher, knowing definitely the quantity and quality of the 
study which has taken place before the class meeting, would 
probably feel less pressure to assure himself that the children 
know the main facts, and consequently would be freer to lead the 
thinking of the class. 

6 Gates, A. I. Psychology for Students of Education, pp. 136-37. Macmillan, 1923. 


CHAPTER III 


CHARACTERISTICS OF THE QUESTIONS USED 
IN THIS SERIES OF EXPERIMENTS 


Reference has already been made to the fact that the study 
questions used in this investigation constitute a type of lesson 
assignment. In this connection the writer would again emphasize 
that they are not to be considered as the only type of assignment, 
applicable to all lessons or to all situations. A good teacher varies 
the sort of study which he requires of his pupils, depending upon 
the kind of mental growth which he expects. Whatever conclu- 
sions are reached, therefore, in this experiment should be consid- 
ered as applicable to one sort of assignment under certain specified 
conditions. 

Like the usual questions which are employed in silent reading 
tests, the study questions closely parallel the text. In order to 
illustrate this point a portion of Smith’s Human Geography is given 
below, and after it are placed the study questions which were used 
in connection with it. 


THE GREEN NORTHLANDS 


Scattered lands of green grass, flocks and fish.—What islands le between 
Scotland, Norway and Iceland? (Fig. 319.) These islands together with 
Iceland, west Norway and the southern part of Scotland are covered, where 
there is any soil, with green grass, bushes, or trees. The summers are so cool 
and wet that it is almost impossible to plow the ground and grow grain. But 
all this moisture is good for grass, and there is scarcely another place in the 
whole world where grass is so very green. Flocks of sheep and herds of shaggy 
cattle and short-legged, thick-coated ponies are a source of wealth. Animals 
in this region can run at pasture for more months in the year than is possible 
in New York State. When snow covers the ground, they are fed on hay that 
is made with great labor (Fig. 330). 

The inhabitants of the Northlands are brave and hardy sailors whose chief 
industry is fishing. They catch quantities of cod and herring which they dry 
or salt for export. 

Most of the people live in stone houses roofed with thatch or sod and heated 
with peat fires (Fig. 333). 

407. Sailing in northern seas.—Every summer, steamers carrying tourists 
sail from New York to Iceland. After sailing around that island, the boats 

21 


22 <A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


go on to the northernmost tip of Europe. What cape forms the tip? (Fig. 325.) 
In the same latitude the seas of North America are so full of floating ice that 
in three centuries of trying, only one explorer has sailed his boat across from 
the Bering Strait to Davis Strait, and the voyage took three years of hard 
work (Sec. 359). 

What makes such a difference? The answer is ocean, and currents. ‘The 
Gulf Stream is a great current of warm water that flows from the tropical 
part of the Atlantic Ocean (Fig. 327). The trade winds of the Atlantic blow 
a current of warm water into the Caribbean Sea. This current forces its way 
into the Gulf of Mexico and, like a great river within the ocean, flows out 
between Florida and Cuba as fast as a man can walk, and carries eighteen 
hundred times as much water as the Mississippi River. This ocean river or 
stream can be traced as far northward as Newfoundland. The prevailing 
westerly winds carry some of this warm water on past England, past Norway, 
and into the Arctic Ocean. Whenit reaches northwest Europe, it is still warm 
enough to cause the winter temperature to be much less severe. Labrador, 
in the same latitude, is very, very cold. Why? (Fig. 327, Sec. 251.) 

Examine the winter temperature map (Fig. 329), and then pick out a city 
in Iceland, three cities in North America, and three in Europe that are near 
the January isotherm (equal temperature line) of 32°. 

How many degrees of latitude and how many miles lie between the northern- 
most place and southernmost place having a January temperature of 30°? 

408. A warm north coast.—In winter the bays along the Labrador coast 
and the harbor of Vladivostok are frozen shut, but the harbors along the entire 
Norwegian coast are open because the warm water of the eastern Atlantic 
Ocean keeps them from freezing. During the World War it was found that 
when Archangel was closed by ice, the little Russian port of Murmansk on 
Kola Bay in Lapland was open (Fig. 325). A little of the warm Gulf Stream 
water slips around the North Cape and keeps the ice away. 

409. A cool, damp summer, and a raw, mild winter—Look at Figures 328 
and 329. You will see that the summer is warmer and the winter is colder 
in the great forests of the Mackenzie Valley and central Siberia than it is in 
Iceland, west Norway or the north of Scotland. The long hours of sunshine 
heat the land surface quickly, but the sea is heated very slowly. There are 
several reasons for this, one of which is that the stirring of the water by the 
wind causes the sea to be warmed to a greater depth than the land. Another 
reason is that more heat is required to raise the temperature of a given amount 
of water than is needed for the same amount of earth. Water holds its heat 
longer, and therefore oceans and other large bodies of water are warmer in 
winter and cooler in summer than is the land. The west wind, warmed by the 
ocean in winter, gives the green Northland region a winter that is cool but 
not cold. In summer, this same ocean cools the wind and gives the green 
Northland a summer that is almost as cold as the winter (Figs. 328, 329), 
besides having much dampness and rain. Those countries which have a cool 
summer and a warm winter because they are near the ocean from which the 
prevailing winds blow are said to have an oceanic climate. What is the differ- 
ence between the average temperatures in July and January in west Norway? 
In east coast Siberia? In central Siberia? 


Characteristics of Questions Used in Experiments 23 
The writer’s study questions on this portion of the text follow: 


STUDY QUESTIONS 


Sections 406 to 413, pages 210 to 214, tell about the Green Northlands of 
Europe. Paragraph 406 tells what the principal industries of this region are. 
Write them here. 


Why are these the industries of the Green Northlands? Read from section 
406 through section 413 with that question in mind. Read these sections 
twice. Then see how many of the questions below you can answer. After 
you have answered all you can, find the answers to the others in the book. 


1. Write below the names of the islands which lie between Scotland, Norway 
and Iceland. 


2. Underline the best reason why the land in this section is used chiefly 
for pasturage. 
a. There are many cattle and sheep there. 
b. The islands are covered with snow in winter. 
c. The islands are too wet to plough in summer time. 


3. Fill in the blank spaces. 
Partly because of the fact that this region is not suited for agri- 


culture, the chief industry of the people is............ (look at the 
picture on page 210). .......... hn 9 Ao ee i are salted and 
dried for export. The people’s houses are made of ............ 
PAYG, ci ence aise sy roofs. 


4, Underline the best title for section 407. 
a. Summer tourists in northern waters. 
b. Why northern waters near Europe are warmer than those near North 
America. 
c. The Gulf Stream. 
d. Ocean currents of the Atlantic Ocean. 


5. Cross out the wrong words. 
{warmer 


\eolder re 


Ocean currents make the lands we are studying 


they would otherwise be. The Gulf Stream flows from the Car- 
ibbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico eas across the ade 
northwest Pacific 
(twice 
Ocean. The current has {ten times as much water as the Missis- 
[1800 times 


sippi River. 
6. Put a T before the sentence below if it is true and an F if it is false. 


LS Ee The ports on the eastern coast of Siberia are open 
longer than those on the western coast of Norway. 


24 A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


7. Fill in the blank spaces below with the words “water” or “earth.” Be 
sure to put the right word in the right place. 
ACRES AR ogy heats more slowly than................ 
NOME Ate oan ae cools more slowly than... 70 as en aeee 
YOY Am eM 8 2 is warmed to a greater depth than.......... 
PROS Ws hs att holds its heat a shorter time than 


©0108 © 6 6160/0 © 


One of the most obvious characteristics which will be noted in 
the above questions is that they are objectively scorable. The 
correctness or incorrectness of an answer can be as definitely deter- 
mined as in the case of an answer to a problem in arithmetic. 
This means that the judgment of the teacher plays a minor and 
unimportant rédle in the correction of the papers. As was done 
in this experiment, a certain score value may be assigned by the 
instructor to each question, such score being determined by the 
teacher’s conception of its value; but once this value is deter- 
mined, the pupils can grade their own papers as satisfactorily as 
any one else can. Such correction by the children, moreover, 
has the value of calling the attention of individuals in the class 
to their mistakes and misconceptions, thereby strengthening right 
bonds and weakening wrong ones. 

It cannot be too strongly emphasized that the above questions 
do not constitute an examination; on the contrary, they are 
intended only as guides to study. In order that this fact may be 
made perfectly clear, the examination questions on the passage 
quoted are given here. 


Put a T before each true statement and an F before each false one. 


... The summers in the Green Northlands are cool and very wet. 
. The climate in the Northlands is favorable to the growth of grass 
crops. 
. Grazing is one of the chief occupations of the Northlands. 
. The average temperature of any region is determined entirely by 
its distance from the equator. 
. The waters of the Gulf Stream temper the climate of North America. 
. Iceland, which lies near the Arctic Circle, has a climate more severe 
in winter than Canada or northern New England. 
. The Gulf Stream is like a river of warm water flowing through the 
Atlantic Ocean. 
. It requires less heat to raise the temperature of water than to raise 
the temperature of an equal amount of earth. 
.. Few fish are found in the cold waters of the north. — 
. The direction of the prevailing winds helps to force the Gulf Stream 
toward the western coast of Europe. 


Characteristics of Questions Used in Experiments 25 


A further statement with reference to these tests should be 
made. If the same person had made both the study questions 
and the test statements, he would have had a natural tendency 
to make their subject matter completely coincide. In this case, 
he might with propriety have been accused of using the study 
questions as a method of coaching the class for the tests. There- 
fore the experimenter himself wrote all of the study questions, 


but secured graduate students at Teachers College to make the _ 


tests. He did not see these tests until he had finished the study 
questions, nor did the graduate students see the study questions 
until they had made the tests. Thus the pupils who used the 
control method of study were given as fair a chance in the tests 
as were those who used the study question method. 

The question naturally arises as to the relationship between the 
sort of study questions used in this investigation and the type of 
exercises which are usually found at the end of chapters in geog- 
raphy texts. For purposes of comparison, the questions in the 
Human Geography on the subject matter previously quoted are 
given below. 


1. Why are these scattered lands studied as one group? 


2. Compare the climate of this region with the climate of the west shores 
of the Atlantic in the same latitude. Why is the pasture season longer 
here than in the state of New York? What coast in North America has 
climate similar to west Norway? 


3. What other coast that you have studied is somewhat like the coast of 
Norway in formation? (Fig. 165.) 


4, Why do the people of Norway have more ships than the same number 
of people in the United States? 


5. Why are the people of the Northlands fishermen? Of what people in 
North America do they remind you? Why are they hardy seamen? 


6. If you should go to Iceland to live, in what business would you like to 
engage? 


7. Read stories of Odin, Thor and others that the old Norsemen have given 
to us. 


The most apparent difference between these and the study ques- 
tions used in this experiment is that the latter are objectively 
scorable. But this is not the most fundamental difference. The 
two types serve entirely different ends. As already stated, the 
purpose of the objectively scorable questions is to secure and to 


1 


\ 
ka 
i 


: 
t 
é 


/ 


26 <A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


make more efficient a careful reading of the text. If they help 
to secure retention of the ideas and facts in the text, they will 
have served their chief purpose. They are to be assigned at that 
time in the teaching process when it is necessary that the pupil 
acquire a control over the facts given in the book. They are not 
intended to guide classroom discussion nor to direct or suggest 
collateral reading. 

A glance at questions 2, 4, 6 and 7 above brings out the con- 
trast we are trying to make clear. Questions 4 and 6 would form 
excellent bases for class discussion. They would stimulate lively 
periods of pupil activity in the recitation and would be likely 
to evoke expressions of varying ideas and points of view. It should 
also be noted that answers to these questions require the sort of 
control over the subject matter of the text which might well have 
been acquired through the kind of reading and study which would 
result from the use of the objectively scorable study questions. 

Questions 2 and 7, on the other hand, demand collateral reading, 
and attempt to direct it into profitable channels. They are not 
intended to guide the first study of the preceding chapter; rather, 
they are calculated to fix its facts and ideas through their use in 
thought problems which involve comparison and contrast. 

The objectively scorable questions, then, are not intended to 
supplant or replace the questions that are now in the texts, in so 
far as the latter either suggest broad problems for class discussion 
or help to direct collateral reading. In so far as the existing ques- 
tions in the geography books refer particularly and solely to the 
facts as given in an individual chapter, the results of this inves- 
tigation tend to show that they may well be replaced by objec- 
tively scorable questions. 

The subject matter in Human Geography which was used in this 
experiment included pages 203 to 250. One-hundred fifty-eight 
study questions were made on this portion of the book. The pro- 
cedure which the experimenter adopted in making the questions 
was as follows: He read a given section in the geography, keeping 
these problems in mind, ‘‘How can I make questions on this por- 
tion of the text which (a) are capable of objectively scorable 
answers and which (b) involve some important mental reaction to 
the facts given in the book?” It is natural, therefore, that there 
should be in the complete list, various kinds of exercises; and 
since there was at this stage of the work no desire to be hampered 


Characteristics of Questions Used in Experiments 27 


by considerations of classifying them into types, the problem of 
such classification later was rather difficult. In general, however, 
they may be divided into eight different classes. A description 
of these classes, with samples and the total number of exercises 
of each type is given below. 

I. Questions which involved the selection from a number of 
alternatives of the best reason for a situation or the best title 
for a paragraph. 


Samples: 


Underline the best reason why there are many nations in Europe. 
1. Europe has three times as many people as North America. 
2. European nations have developed a strong national spirit. 
3. Many parts of Europe are protected from invasion by valleys, bays 
and peninsulas. 
Underline the chief point of difference between the European Forest Belt 
and the American Forest Belt. 
1. The people do not kill the same animals. 
2. The people do not eat the same kinds of food. 
3. In Europe some of the land has been prepared for farming. 
Total number of such exercises, 50. 


al 


II. Questions involving the matching of items which belong 
together. 


Samples: 


Below on the left are three problems which the Low Countries have to face. 
Below these are three ways that the Low Countries use to solve these problems. 
Select the right solution for each problem and write it in the blank space. 


Problems: 


METRE VGLA TE TI WLUD PECUIIONG. |) Suey Shaler oie ava NTN) bck lose arelenudie geet alate 
SPRUE ROTIN NUE POUR TEOCLOC LH ie Fe Toil Hh sy kyeh den, cad laneratah auhalpi by yaNat a «fale Buy 
Skier co DULG Toads In’ damp COUNTIES. bs) 44..4)..6e mae Mine cle lace coe 


Solutions: 


Use canals for roads. 
Dredge rivers and make dikes. 
Build greater docks. 


On the left of the page are some facts about England. Below this are the 
results of these facts. Select the correct result for each fact and write it in 
the blank space after the fact. 

1. Sea boundary between England and Europe ........... a ie Ante 
2. Many drowned valleys like Hudson River .................... 
3. British factories produce excellent goods ...............0ceeeee 


28 A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


Results: 


Great Britain a great importing and exporting center. 
Great Britain has been able to keep out of many wars. 
Excellent harbors for shipping and trade. 

Total number of such exercises, 5. 


III. Statements to be marked true or false 


Samoples: 
Write a T or an F in front of these sentences. 


.. England has a small carrying trade. 
. The quickest way to go from New York to Russia is through 
England. 
. The English are not an energetic people. 
. Norwegian ships carry only Norwegian products. 
.. Water power will probably be an important factor in the future 
industrial development of Norway. 


Total number of such exercises, 6. 


Questions like those described under these first three classifica- 
tions were intended to help the children to think, reason or sum- 
marize on the basis of the facts given in the text. By indicating 
new and different bearings of the facts of the book, it was expected 
that such questions would strengthen mental connections through 
enlarging the area of stimulated nerve centers. In terms of the 
literature of study, this sort of problem assists in an elementary 
way in the organization of ideas. 


IV. Exercises involving the completion of sentences. 


Samples: 
Fill in the blank spaces. 


The landscape in Holland and Belgium is like a procession of ...... 
AS ea ate Iron ore for factories comes from the province of .......... 


in} the country of aru ee ces The greatest iron manufacturing 
FepiOn Is NEAT. Qe ke eee LG ee cele ake river carries the ore 
to the; famous ibis es Works, which formerly manufactured 


guns. Now this plant manufactures ............. 
Complete the following sentences: 


The climate of Ireland is too «........... for wheat. The chief 
agricultural products are ............ and: Jaina eee Houses 
are built’ of Vy sie ee ee The people’ burn 171.0) 2204 in their 
fires. 


Total number of such exercises, 10. 


Characteristics of Questions Used in Experiments 29 


V. Exercises demanding the selection from two or more alterna- 
tives of the correct word or phrase. 


Samples: 
Cross out the wrong words. 


: . : 3 theast 
In 1492 the richest men in England lived in | SRE PSOE 


\ southwestern England. 


Their chief industry was aaa 
farming. 


Cross out the wrong words. 
. |the greatest EW Oe : 
The Clyde River is ee Re cileranted shipbuilding center(s) in the 
mining. 


Sena dine. British coal is used for 


world. Belfast is a center for 


{many 


pane \only iron 


ore(s). 


Total number of such exercises, 22. 


VI. Exercises requiring the selection of the products of a given 
country, of the industries of a locality, or of similar facts. 


Samples: 
Underline the products for which the English climate is suited. 
Corn Rye Potatoes 
Wheat Small Grains Tobacco 
Cotton Sugar Garden vegetables 


Underline the three things which offer the greatest promise for the future 
of England. 


Agriculture 

Grazing 

Cattle Breeding 

Coal Deposits 

Oil Production 

The Climate of the Country 


Total number of such exercises, 14. 


VII. Exercises requiring the children to write the names of 
cities, industries, bodies of water, products or the like. 


Samples: 

Write below in the first space the name of the most important metal pro- 
duced in the great forest section of Europe. Write in the next spaces the two 
countries which chiefly import it. In the next spaces write the names of the 
two bodies of water over which it is carried in boats. The words “ Winter’ 
and “Summer” will tell you in which space to write each body of water 


30 <A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


You will need to look at the map on page 204 and find Narvik in Norway to 
answer the last part of this question. 

se Owe Bae ete Winter... dsc eee 

OREO in Manche eee Summer’ 2...) ape 

Write in the first spaces below the names of three textiles other than cotton 

which are manufactured in the British Isles. Write in the next space one 

city which manufactures that textile. Write in the third space one use to 
which you have seen this textile put. 


ob @ ee we ete 8 ee 6 Oe, lhl ON wt oe ie eee ee ere 
C6 © Ces ee eee 0 6 6 ae” | | A Ww te! 6) 6) ie Tee ee eee ee 


© 04 6 mayer oe Be eee 


Total number of such exercises, 41. 


The writer looks upon such exercises as are included under IV 
through VII as being analogous to note-taking in adult study. If | 
two cities are important to remember in connection with a certain 
country, writing their names tends to impress them on the mind. 
It may readily be conceded that such questions, unaided by recita- 
tion periods or reviews, may be of little value in securing perma- 
nent retention of facts. Butit is even more certain that the mere 
hasty reading of such items will secure retention even less surely. 
It must stand to reason that such questions, through forcing 
children to read carefully and understandingly and then to make 
some immediate use of the subject matter read, are more likely 
to produce retention than reading without any immediate use. 
And, indeed, such proved to be the case in the experiments which 
were conducted. 


VIII. Exercises involving the use of arithmetical calculations. 
Samples: 


It takes about twenty-four hours to go from New York to Chicago. 
About what part of this time does it take to go from London to Paris? 
bites Ela ory Et Would the service by airplane take a longer or shorter 
THIET se he Re eae ee About how much longer or shorter? ...... 


Notice what the text says about the amount of cotton cloth produced 
in England during 1919. See if you can figure out the total number of 
miles this amount represents. Put the number here. ............ 


About how many times to Chicago and back would this reach? 


Total number of such exercises, 6. 


The questions described and illustrated under VIII were 


intended to help the children to ‘‘supplement the thought” of 
1MeMurry, F. M. How to study, Chap. IV. Houghton, Mifflin, 1909. 


Characteristics of Questions Used in Experiments 31 


the lesson. Statements dealing with quantitative relationships 
lend themselves naturally to comparison and contrast; a principle 
well understood and frequently applied by skillful public speakers. 
Such calculations as are required by the exercises above seem to 
assist in visualizing facts through associating them with mathe- 
matical relationships already known by the pupils. 

In conclusion, it may be said that all of the various kinds of 
exercises used in this experiment exist primarily for one purpose— 
to secure from the children a constaft mental reaction to the 
printed page. The writer remembers vividly the dull, passive, 
spiritless manner with which he used to read and reread his 
geography lessons, hoping enough of the facts would ‘“‘stick”’ to 
get him safely through the stormy period of the recitation. In 
the better schools, methods of study have been much improved 
since that time; greater care in the assigning of lessons and more 
purpose on the part of the children have done their work in making 
study a livelier process. Results from the experiments with 
objectively scorable study questions seem to show that they will 
be of assistance in this trend toward improvement. 

It is probable that some of the kinds of exercises described in 
this chapter are more valuable than others. The problem of their 
evaluation, although beyond the scope of this study, might well 
be subjected to scientific experimentation. A variety of tests was 
used in this investigation for two reasons. In the first place, it 
was assumed that such variety would appeal to children. In 
the second place, as already stated, the experimenter tried at all 
times to use the type of exercise which seemed to him to fit best 
the sort of subject matter involved. 


CHAPTER IV 
EXPERIMENTS IN SPEYER SCHOOL 


The experimenter was able to secure the use of three forty- 
minute study periods a week with two seyenth-grade classes at 
the Speyer School, New York City. ~~ Homogeneous grouping on 
the basis of group intelligence tests is in force at Speyer, and the 
classes used in the experiment were numbers three and four, two 
of the lower groups. 

Geography is not studied as a separate subject at this school, 
but is taken up only in connection with history and civics in the 
social science course. In this course no recitation periods were 
concerned with the subject matter used in the experimental work, 
so class hours did not constitute a variable in the work. Since the 
object of the experiment was to test the efficacy of two methods 
of study, the writer made no attempt either to question the class 
on the assignments or to conduct any form of class discussion on 
them. Of course these conditions are artificial; but they were 
necessary to insure completely controlled study conditions. 

Of the three periods a week which were allotted for the work, 
the first two were used for study of the text; the last was divided 
into twenty minutes for review and twenty minutes for a true-false 
test of forty statements, covering the subject matter of the first 
two periods. The experiment was continued for six weeks. 

The rotation experimental method was used throughout. This. 
method was used by Pearson and Suzzallo ! in 1912 in experiments 
to determine teaching technique in spelling; and was also employed 
by Hosic in a study of children’s reading.? A full exposition of 
the procedure of rotation experiments, and the computation 
formule for the interpretation of results are given by McCall.’ 

In the present investigation, methods of study and groups of 
pupils were rotated_each-week. Thus if Class A constituted the 


1 Pearson, Henry C. and Suzzallo, Henry. ‘‘Comparative Experimental Teaching in Spell- 
ing,’ ’ Teachers College Record, Vol. 1 13, No. 1. 

2 Hosic, James ve empirical Studies in School Reading. Teachers College Bureau of 
Publications, INR Yes 

?McCall, W. A. Woke to Experiment in Education, Chap. VIII, Macmillan, 19238. 


32 


vo te 


Experiments Used in Speyer School 33 


experimental group the first week and Class B the control, Class B 
was the experimental group the second week and Class A the 
control. In this way each class was the experimental group three 
weeks of the six and the control group for the other three. Thus 
the six-week period divides itself naturally into three two-week 
units, in each of which each class was used both as an experimental 
group and as a control group. Results were calculated for each 
two-week unit, and a summary was made for the entire period. 

The only particular in which the writer did not follow McCall’s 
description of the rotation experimental method consists in the 
omission of the initial tests. The individual children were assumed 
to have at the beginning about as much knowledge of the work of 
one week as of the work of any other week. This assumption was 
considered to be justified because the experiment extended over 
several weeks, because a large amount of subject matter was 
involved and because the true-false statements were very specific, 
requiring exact knowledge of the text rather than general knowl- 
edge of geography. 

Of the omission of the initial tests, McCall says,* ““Sometimes 
it is an advantage to keep pupils ignorant of that upon which 
they are to be tested until the experimental factor has been 
applied.” This was precisely the situation in the present inves- 
tigation. It was desirable to have the study situation of the con- 
trol group approximate as nearly as possible the actual situation 
in school practice. If initial tests had been given, the pupils 
would have had some idea of what to study, and the normal 
conditions would have been to that extent destroyed. 

The text used in this experiment was Human Geography, by 


J. Russell Smith. The books were distributed at the beginning | 


and collected at the end of each study period in order that there | 


might be no intervening reading of the text to disturb the con- 
trolled conditions. To the experimental group, study sheets con- 
taining page assignments as well as study questions were dis- 
tributed with the books, and the pupils were told to follow the 
written directions. Copies of all the study sheets are included in 
the Appendix. With the control group, the books were distributed 
and the pupils were told to study as well as they knew how the 
same sections in the book as were covered by ehoreyaay, sheets 
furnished to the other class. 

(McCall, W. A. How to Experiment in Education, Chap. VIII. 


} 


384 <A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


At the review and test period, the books.and study sheets were 
again distributed. ‘The control group was told to review the 
week’s work in preparation for the test. The experimental group 
was told to review the text and the study sheets. At the end of 
twenty minutes, the books and study sheets were collected and 
the test was given. 

In scoring the papers, the procedure of subtracting the number 
wrong from the number right was followed. McCall’s formula 
for the rotation experimental method was used for interpreting 
the data in the case of each of the three two-week units. Table I, 
Appendix III, shows the results of the experiment according to 
this formula. 

In each of the two-week units, the average scores of the study 
question groups were higher than those of the control groups. 
In order to interpret the significance of this difference, the for- 
mula which was employed uses the experimental coefficient, or 
K.C. A positive E.C. indicates a probable superiority of the experi- 
mental over the control method. An E.C. of +1 or greater 
indicates “practical certainty’’® that there is a true difference in 
the values of the two procedures. An H.C. of .5 indicates only 
half certainty, and so on for other values of the E.C. The E.C. 
may also be expressed in terms of a statement of chances that 
there is a real difference between the two groups; for instance 
an E.C. of .7 means that the chances are 38 to 1 that there is a 
true superiority of the experimental method.’ 

The experimental coefficients for the three two-week units are: 
.739, .17 and 1.57. Each of these is positive, but they vary con- 
siderably in significance. Thus, the coefficient for the second two 
weeks, expressed in terms of a statement of chances, is only about 
2.5 to 1, while that for the final period is greater than 65,000 
to 1. The experimenter, therefore, felt the need of combining the 
results for the total period of work. For this summary, he used 
Yule’s formula® for combining distributions, to determine the 
means and standard deviations, and then used McCall’s formula, 
previously referred to, to arrive at the final experimental 
coefficient. 


5 McCall, W. A. How to Experiment in Education, p. 187. 
6 Tbid., p. 154. 


7 Ibid., p. 155. 
8 Yule, G. U. An Introduction to the Theory of Statistics, p. 142. Charles Griffin & Co., 
London, 1912, Ed. 1919. 


Experiments Used in Speyer School 35 


Fa 
#: 


- The summary is given in Table II, Appendix III; an E.C. of }) 
1.34 was the result. Since an E.C. of 1 is equal to “practical | 
certainty,’’® 1.34 is clearly significant of a true superiority of the | 
objectively scorable study question method. | 

The writer was anxious to determine whether the differences 
between the two groups, which resulted from the study question 
method, would persist or whether they were largely transitory. 
In order to determine this, he waited two weeks after the end of 
the six-week experimental period, and then began to give again 
the same six tests as had been given the first time, allowing one 
week between each two tests. Thus there was a period of eight 
weeks between the time when a test was first given and the time 
when it was repeated. 

Table III, Appendix III, shows the results of the second tests. 
The experimental coefficients are .29, —.06 and .77. The second 
of these is negative, but is so small as to be entirely insignificant. 
Reference to the results of the original tests, moreover, shows 
that the first E.C. for this two weeks period was very small, being 
but .17. The summary of the second testing, given in Table IV, 
Appendix III, shows that the difference between the groups did 
persist, a final E.C. of .538 being found. 

The second E.C.’s are all smaller than the first. This fact is 
explainable when one recalls the typical curves of forgetting.’ 
The amounts of knowledge of both groups, starting with a con- 
siderable difference between them, are gradually approaching the 
same level. Therefore, as the two curves approach each other, 
the experimental coefficients tend to become smaller. 

McCall, W. A. How to Experiment in Education, p. 154 


10 ‘Thorndike, E.L. Hducational Psychology, Vol. II, pp. 304-306. Teachers College Bureau 
of Publications, MN; Y., 1913-14. 


CHAPTER V 


EXPERIMENT AT PUBLIC SCHOOL 43 


In most respects the experimental work at Public School 48 
duplicated that at the Speyer School. The same study material 
was used and the same general procedure was followed. There 
were, however, some important differences. 

In Public School 43 regular instruction in geography is part of 
the curriculum. The writer therefore was faced with two alterna- 
tives; first, he might select some portions of the world which were 
not being regularly studied in the upper grades and make them 
the subject matter of his experimental work, or second, he could 
use for it the same countries as were required by the course of 
study. The latter plan was decided upon, because it was not 
considered wise to divide the efforts of the class in geography. 

The principal offered for experimental purposes a sixth-grade 
class of thirty-six boys. This group had no regular text in ge- 
ography, the teacher using oral presentation and reference books. 
In the main he covered during the six-week duration of the 
experiment much of the material required by the study sheets; 
but he approached it from an entirely different point of view. 

For the periods of study required by the experimental procedure, 
the class was divided into two groups. The division was an 
arbitrary one, based on the seating plan of the room, not on in- 
teligence or achievement, for the rotation method does not 
require exact matching of groups or pairs. 

The conduct of the study periods and tests was the same as at 
Speyer School. Table V, Appendix III, gives the results for the 
\ six weeks of work. The experimental coefficients are .59, .65 and 
.19. Again, all of the E.C.’s are positive but they are somewhat 
lower than those at Speyer School. This might be accounted for 
by the fact that the regular work in geography duplicated to a 
considerable degree the work required by the experiment. 

Table IV, Appendix III, gives the summary of the work at 
Public School 48, calculated according to the formula previously 
described. The final E.C., .84, is not so large as at Speyer School, 
but it is clearly significant. EXxpressed in a statement of chances 
the ratio is about 100 to 1. 

36 


CHAPTER VI 


SUPPLEMENTARY EXPERIMENTS AT ROSELLE, 
PASSAIC AND STAMFORD 


Although the results of the experimental work at both Speyer 
School and Public School 48 are significant, the writer felt the need 
of trying similar experiments in other schools. In the first place, 
this would increase the number of pupil participants, and in the 
second place it would test the study question method in other 
localities than New York City. He therefore secured for experi- 
mental purposes two sixth-grade classes at Passaic, New Jersey, 
and four seventh-grade classes, two each at Roselle, New 
Jersey, and Stamford, Connecticut. 

At each of these three places, one two-week unit of the material 
prepared for Speyer School and Public School 48 was used. The 
teachers regularly in charge of the classrooms conducted the work, 
following the same procedure as used in the New York City schools. 

One hundred and sixty children participated in the experiments 
at Roselle, Passaic, and Stamford. With the numbers at Speyer 
School and Public School 48 added, this brings the total number 
of children who were used in this investigation to about two 
hundred and fifty. 

Table VII, Appendix III, shows the results of the three two- 
week units at the cities mentioned above. The E.C. at Roselle 
was .978; at Passaic, .013; and at Stamford, 1.29. The E.C.’s at 
both Stamford and Roselle are significant; that at Passaic is posi- 
tive but so small as to indicate but a negligible difference between 
the two groups. However, the summary, given in Table VIII, 
Appendix III, is .99, which is equivalent, as previously stated, 
to “practical certainty.” The results of these three supplemen- 
tary experiments, therefore, confirm those obtained at Speyer 
School and Public School 43. 


37 


CHAPTER VII 
REPORT OF WORK AT HACKENSACK 


In laying his plans for the experimental work of this investi- 
gation, the writer recognized the desirability of two types of 
studies. It was obvious that carefully controlled experiments were 
necessary in order to determine objectively the worth of the 
questions. The preceding chapters have indicated the methods 
and results of these controlled investigations. 

It also seemed necessary, however, to determine the reception 
likely to be accorded by teachers to the study questions. As has 
been previously stated, it is important to show not only that a 
new technique will do what it is expected to do, but also that it 
will fit into present teaching practice. This latter question is 
largely in the field of subjective judgment. Unsupported by 
results from controlled experiments, such subjective evidence 
might be of little value; but as one phase of a complete investi- 
gation it seems to the writer to assume considerable importance. 

To secure such evidence, the writer was able to obtain the 
cooperation of the principal and two teachers of the sixth grade 
in Public School 6, Hackensack, New Jersey. The experimenter 
ascertained what material would be covered in geography for the 
succeeding eight weeks; he then made study questions on this sub- 
ject matter and sent them to the school. He had previously 
discussed the possible value of such exercises with the teachers, 
\/ but his only instructions were to use the material as they saw 
fit. The study questions are given in Appendix II. 

No attempt is made to give objective results of this work, 
because such results were obtained elsewhere, and the purpose of 
the course of procedure at Hackensack was to secure subjective, 
not objective, data. The joint report of the two teachers who 
participated in the study is given below. It is interesting to 
remember in reading this statement that when the experimenter 
first discussed the study questions with the teachers, one of them 
was most doubtful of their value while the other was actively 
hostile. 

38 


Report of Work at Hackensack 39 


“Tt has been our experience in the past that geography assignments to be 
studied from the text were poorly prepared, the fault seeming to lie with the 
assignments rather than with the pupils who struggled with them. Although 
the student did his conscientious best the facts were simply not forthcoming 
at the recitation period. Upon investigation and careful study of the situation 
there seemed to be several reasons for this. 

“When an assignment was given which required a study of the text in order 
to solve a problem, any one or a combination of the following conditions 
resulted. In the first place it frequently developed that some of the most 
important facts had been overlooked. Those important facts that were found 
were not always seen in their proper proportion, the child in his inexperience 
confusing them with points of lesser value to the solution of the problem*in 
hand. Sometimes the child’s study yielded data correct enough in their place 
but bearing absolutely no relationship to the question under discussion. We 
were expecting from the pupil an almost adult ability at taking and organizing | 
notes with no previous training. 

“The recitation period was approached with a feeling of uncertainty and 
often ended in the same way. The tendency was to let the willing horse work, 
and the lesson advanced through the efforts of a few. There seemed to be no 
pride in having done a good task well. Those who were not well prepared 
felt that they had skimmed through neatly; those who had carried the lesson 
felt indignant at doing all the work. Dissatisfaction arose too from the fact 
that the child who had really tried to study had brought in irrelevant material 
which was not usable. He had had no criteria by which to judge his study, 
and no means of knowing when he had accomplished what was required of 
him or, indeed, whether he had accomplished it at all. In other subjects his 
study work had definitely scorable results by which he could tell where he 
stood; in geography he was helpless. Owing to his dissatisfaction at the turn 
of events, or because of his lack of proper preparation, his interest lagged, © 
flickered, and went out. This condition was more or less general. 

“One of the causes of the difficulty found in preparing study assignments 
from the text was the fact that the organization of the textbook, covering, as 
it must, large units of work, did not readily lend itself to the smaller units of 
study demanded by the type of assignment necessary to problem-solving, and 
there was confusion and loss of time in having to read the entire text. The 
questions which were found in the textbooks did not parallel the reading 
matter and were more suitable for review or for guiding supplementary reading 
than for initial study. Furthermore, the problems around which the author 
had organized his material frequently were not similar to the problems raised 
by the children, and information bearing upon the problem being solved by the 
pupils was difficult to obtain. 

‘Since there was little interest in the lesson and less satisfaction from the 
preparation of it, it was only to be expected that the retention of a lesson was 
a minus quantity resulting in further dissatisfaction. It took tremendous 
interest and enthusiasm on the part of the teacher to say nothing of a wide 
knowledge of the subject matter to keep the lesson from becoming the acme 
of boredom. 

‘‘A complete review of the curriculum made us conscious that results in 


= 


40 A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


subjects, such as arithmetic, spelling, reading and penmanship, in which defi- 
nitely scorable results were obtained, were infinitely better than results in 
geography or history where such questions were not used. Would definitely 
scorable study questions on the text increase the efficiency of the pupil in 
learning and retaining the geography lesson? It seemed worth trying. 

“In using the study questions we first tried them, class against class on 
equally divided sections of the text. Each class was without the questions 
that the other class had. This was followed by a true-false test on the entire 
section. The scorable results were not conclusive owing to the recitation factor, 

~but interest in geography had received a stimulus and the children wanted 
' questions for the entire unit studied. 

“Next we tried the study questions in this way. One class was divided 
into Teams A and B. The equal division was made with the help of geography 
ratings plus pupils’ intelligence quotients. 

“As a means of collection of facts preparatory to work on the problem on 
Siberia, assignments to text reading were given. Team A had study questions. 
Team B did not. There was no discussion of the reading. In a true and false 
test which followed, Team A reached a very much higher average than Team B. 

‘What was more significant than the conclusive results of this experiment 
was the fact that Team B begged that it might be allowed to re-read the text 
using study questions and then to compete with Team A in a similar test. 
As an added reason the pupils gave the argument that they would be better 
prepared to solve the coming problem if they had previously answered the 
study questions as an aid in remembering the facts. 

“By way of further experiment the class was given the study questions for 
a new unit, and the first few days given over to the preparation and discussion 
of answers. Then the problem was set. Owing to some previous knowledge 
of the subject a better problem was arrived at in shorter time. The pupils 
were delighted to find how much of the problem they could already answer, 
and the sections requiring more study or the use of reference material were 
more quickly recognized and more enthusiastically attacked. 

“After an eight-weeks trial we found that conditions had improved consider- 
ably, the most striking feature being the interest of the pupils who were de- 
manding study questions when they were not available. They were more 
satisfied with their lessons because they could find without undue difficulty 
all the facts necessary to enable them to participate freely in the lesson. The 
fact that the preparation could be scored increased their responsibility and 
appealed to their competitive instinct. 

“At the conclusion of the experiment a class vote for an opinion on the 
questions resulted in a response of fifty pupils favoring the questions and two 
against them. Some of the reasons given for liking the questions were: 


vy 1. The questions could all be answered from the text. 
v 2. The pupils could get better grades. 
’ 3. The questions called attention to what was read. 
“4. The questions made studying more interesting. 
5. The questions required thought. 
‘ 6. The things you needed to know were found more easily. 
7. The questions were interesting because they were like puzzles. 


Report of Work at Hackensack 4] 


8. After answering the questions it was easier to remember them. 
* 9. The pupils knew they were getting what they wanted. 


“The two who voted against the questions gave as their reason the opinion 
that the wording of the questions was too difficult. 

“From the teachers’ standpoint the questions proved valuable because 
they could be fitted to a more limited assignment and could be made to run 
parallel to the students’ problems. They also put the facts to be learned in 
the proper proportion. Besides furnishing the facts needed for the solution 
of the problem, it was also a means of covering all essentials which might 
not have come under the problem. 

“The chief danger seems to be that the questions and the resulting advan- 
tages from their use are too good and the temptation is to use them to the 
exclusion of other teaching methods.” 


CHAPTER VIII 


SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND 
THEIR APPLICATION 


In order to secure the completely controlled conditions which 
are necessary in such a series of investigations as has been 
described, it is almost impossible to avoid creating certain arti- 
ficial situations which would not obtain in ordinary schoolroom 
procedure. Although unavoidable in many cases, such conditions 
may well be recognized by the experimenter, and a statement of 
them included in the summary of his investigations. 

The writer believes that three such factors have entered into 
his work. The first is implicit in the rotation experiment procedure, 
Since Class A, for example, has the study-question method this 
week and the traditional method next week, may there not be 
some transfer of method from one week to the next? There was 
no attempt to secure data on this point, and the evidence from the 
two schools where the work lasted for six weeks is contradictory. 
At the Speyer School, the first E.C. was .739, the second, .17 and 
the third, 1.57. Had there been transfer of method, the two 
groups would have become closer as the experiment proceeded. 
On the other hand, at Public School 48, which used the same 
materials, the E.C.’s were .59, .65, and .19, the final one being the 
smallest as would have been the case if transfer had taken place. 
In some of the study periods in which the control method was used, 
the experimenter noticed that some of the pupils were taking 
notes, which might be interpreted as some slight evidence of 
transfer of method. 

The facts probably are, however, that six weeks is far too short 
a period to produce any change in methods of study which had 
been built up through several years of school experience. No 
attempt was made to insure transfer by discussing the values of 
the two methods. Were the study-question method tried over a 
period of years, the question of transfer might be readily tested. 

The second factor which makes the experimental conditions 
artificial consists in the fact that the children knew that the work 

42 


Summary of Findings and Their Application 43 


of the investigation was entirely separate from the regular school «_-“* 
routine, and that the scores they received would have nothing 
to do with their school marks. In addition, they knew that there 
were to be no recitations in which the subject matter studied would 
be discussed. ‘Two normal and potent sources of motivation were 
therefore lacking. Of course, this situation was true of both 
groups, experimental and control, and the writer has no evidence 
that the E.C.’s would have been different if greater motivation 
had been present. Further experimental work over an extended 
period of time and under a normal school situation can alone 
demonstrate the truth of the matter. 
The third factor in the necessarily artificial situation grows out 


of the second. Since there were to be no recitation periods, there 
was no strong motivation to study carefully all of the lesson. 
‘ That is, unless an individual piece of information was specifically 
called for by a study question, the tendency was, of course, for the ~~ 
pupil to neglect it, since he knew he would not be held accountable 
for it in a class discussion. ‘The experimenter recognized this 
fact, and felt forced because of it to include as much of the subject 
matter of the text in his study questions as he could. This fact 
should be taken into account in judging the worth of the study 
questions as questions; for in order to insure a careful reading of 
all of the lesson, the writer had to include some material which 
did not readily lend itself to the objectively scorable type of 
questions. However, he did not feel safe in omitting it, since, as 
previously stated, he did not make the tests and could not know, 
therefore, what items of information they would call for. 

Before giving the summary of findings, the writer feels that there 
is some subjective evidence which should be presented in addition 
to that included in Chapter VII. In the first place, he found 
considerable trouble in enforcing discipline during the study periods ~ 
under the control method. The pupils apparently read the assign- 
ment through once, and from then on did not know what to do 
with their time. It did not seem to occur to them to go back over 
the assignment, raise questions about it, or ascertain and master 
the important parts. On the other hand, disciplinary problems 
scarcely entered into the situation during the periods when study 
questions were used. The boys settled down to work and the 
only difficulty the writer had was at the end of the hour when he 
read the correct answers and the score values of the questions. 


44 A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


At this time, the satisfaction over the correct answers was likely 
to become too vociferous. 

All of the teachers who have watched the work of the experiment 
have spoken favorably of the interest which the study-questions 
evoke. In one class at the Speyer School at the end of six weeks 
of work, a vote was taken as to which kind of study the class 
preferred. The class voted 24 to 6 in favor of the study-question 
method. At Stamford, the teachers discussed the two methods 
with the children at the end of the experiment, and noted their 
comments. Some of these are given here. 


“The reason why I liked the study papers was that we got more out of the 
lesson.” 

“T like the test papers because they are quicker and more fun.” 

“They help you to follow the lesson.” iss 

“Tt makes it easier to get 100 per cent.” 

“Tt is fun to see how much you know without studying over again.” 

“T like the study papers because they point out the most important things 
and they are not easy to forget. It tells you something definite to study.” 

“T like the study papers because they give us something definite to go by.” 


For the purpose of summarizing the entire experiment, the 
writer combined the distributions obtained at all of the schools 
which participated in the investigation. He again employed the 
formule of Yule and McCall which have been previously described. 
Table IX, Appendix III, shows the results. The final experimental 
coefficient is 1.62. Expressed in terms of a statement of chances, 
this is greater than 65,000 to 1. 

There remains the necessity of considering the meaning of these 
results in terms of school practice. The experimental work seems 
/to show clearly that the use of objectively scorable study questions 
- on the geography text has definitely measurable results. These 
results seem to be due to the fact that when such questions are 
used the children react in an active way to the textbook material. 
As stated in Chapter III the questions lead them to think, reason 
or summarize on the basis of facts given in the text, to take notes 
on the material studied, and to amplify quantitative statements 
through computations which deal with familiar relationships. To 
induce such reactions improves in an important way the. quality 
of study, particularly in any lesson assignment which involves 
the reading of the text. 

For a long time teachers have been attempting to induce the 


Summary of Findings and Their Application 45 


sort of reaction in study which is described above; the appreciation 
of its necessity has been well recognized. The value of the study 
questions, therefore, does not lie in uniqueness of purpose, but in 
efficiency in attaining ends of recognized worth. 


To determine objectively that the quality of study had been | 
improved, the true-false test was used to ascertain the under- | 
standing and mastery of subject matter by the children, with the © 


results indicated above. If we define study as ‘‘the work that is 
necessary in the assimilation of ideas” ! and accept the true-false 
test as one method of testing this assimilation, then it must follow 
that the objectively scorable study questions did improve the 
methods of study of the children. If this be true, the value of 
the questions will be recognized by many teachers who are 


attempting to lead their pupils into better ways of working. So_ 


much, then, may be considered as objectively established. 

Proceeding now to subjective judgments of the worth of the 
above facts in elementary school practice, the writer believes that 
_the satisfaction resulting from the objectively scorable character 
of the questions brings greater interest and effort instudy. He is 
also convinced that the greater control over subject matter which 
this method produces will be of real service to teachers whg are 
striving to make the recitation period a time for group thinking 
and problem-solving rather than for testing the knowledge of 
individuals. 





Finally, the study question method seems to offer great possi- 7 


bilities of increasing the efficiency of problem study through 
preparing children to select a problem intelligently and through 


furnishing them a guide in the’mastery of data for its solution,” 


The investigator finds a justification for these conclusions not 
only in his own judgment but also in the corroborative evidence 
of the statements of the Hackensack teachers who used the study 
questions in classroom situations for eight weeks, and also in 
statements from pupils in other schools where the method has 
been tried. 

If the statements be accepted as logical, what can be done to 
put the objectively scorable questions into actual use in the 
schools? It is admitted by the writer that the making of the 
questions requires much time and thought, so that the average 
teacher is likely to be discouraged at the prospect of framing them 

1MecMurry, F. M., How to Study and Teaching How to Study, p. 26. 


ce 


46 <A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


for her own classes. In this situation, there are three possible 
procedures. 

First, the teacher may make them gradually, having them 
mimeographed and keeping them from year to year. An attempt 
has been made in Chapter II to show that the questions are 
adaptable to different methods of teaching or approaches to subject 
matter, in which respect they are similar to a good textbook. 
Keeping them from year to year, therefore, will not have the 
stultifying effect of keeping lesson plans from year to year. 

Second, a city school system in which the same textbooks are 
used throughout the schools may have one committee of teachers, 
under the direction of a supervisor, write the study questions for 
the entire city. They may then be published in handbook form. 

By far the best method, however, in the opinion of the writer, 
is to include the questions as part of the textbook. This may be 
done through the publication of a study exercise book bound 
separately, or else the questions may be incorporated in the text 
itself. In the latter case, the children may be instructed not to 
write the answers in the book, but to write them on separate 
sheets of paper. 

With regard to this suggestion, reference should again be made 
to the fact stated in Chapter III that the objectively scorable 
study questions are not intended to supplant the questions already 
included in geography texts, in so far as the latter consist of 
problems for group discussion and thinking, or for the guidance of 
children in their collateral reading. These should still remain; the 
objectively scorable questions may be added to help in the mastery 
of the text. 

Such a plan, to be sure, will increase somewhat the size of the 
textbooks in geography. But the results of the experimental work 
of this study tend to show that such increase, since it would be of 
material benefit to both teachers and pupils, would be worthwhile. 


APPENDIX 


I 
STUDY QUESTIONS BASED ON 


HUMAN GEOGRAPHY BY J. RUSSELL SMITH 


STUDY SHEET I 


Europe is called ‘‘the mother of nations.’’ Paragraphs 399 to 405 on pages 
203 to 210 in your books tell why, and how the geography of Europe helped 
it to become the mother of nations. 

Read these paragraphs through twice. Then see how many of the ques- 
tions below you can answer. After you bave answered all you can without 
looking at the book, take the book again, check up on the answers you have 
written and find the answers to the other questions. 


I. Underline the two best reasons why Europe may be called the 


II. 


IIl. 


IV. 


mother of nations. 

1. Europe is the smallest inhabited continent except Australia. 

2. The people of Europe and the people who have recently gone 
from Europe rule most of the world. 

3. Europe is entirely in the eastern hemisphere. 

4, Europeans have settled North America and South America and 
Australia. 


Cross out the wrong words. 


best 


continent for making energetic, civilized 
poorest 


Europe is the 


men. A large part of its land is ey for farming and manufac- 
turing. 


Complete the following sentences by filling in the names of the cor- 
rect continents. 

5 | NOU a REE aa has a smaller cold region than .................. 
BE erate so ai ty OR has a larger dry region than .................... 
Pears an then ed ws’ has a smaller wheat and potato belt than ........ 
ee Noy see aes has a larger corn and cotton belt than .......... 
has a climate which nearly everywhere suits white 
men. 


SA 8p 656 6 @ 2 6 € 6 a & .@ 


Cross out the wrong words. 


are | 


Europe has a shape and surface that well suited for human 
are not f 


life. 
47 


48 A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


plain 


, through the center of Europe where 
mountain range 


There is a 


farmi : 
| armng is carried on. 
mining 
V. About how much larger is the average American farm than the aver- 


age European farm? ............ Does this mean that North 
America is more or less densely populated than Europe? .......... 


VI. Underline the best reason why there are many nations in Europe. 
1. Europe has three times as many people as North America. 
2. European nations have developed a strong national spirit. 
3. Many parts of Europe are protected from invasion by valleys, 
bays, and peninsulas. 


VII. Do you think that it would be correct to say that Europe has been 


the mother of literature, art and music? ............ (Write yes 
or no.) 

VIII. Underline the two best reasons why Europe became the mother of 
nations. 


1. Europe is small. 

2. Europe has a dense population. 

3. Europe has a climate and land surface that are favorable to men. 
4. Many parts of Europe are protected by natural barriers. 


STUDY SHEET II 


Sections 406 to 413, pages 210 to 214 tell about the Green Northlands of 
Kurope. Paragraph 406 tells you what the principal industries of this section 
ares). Write them heres i.e! aie bie ae andes... eee 

Why are these the industries of the Green Northlands? Read from section 
406 through section 413 with that question in mind. Read these sections 
twice. Then see how many of the questions below you can answer. After 
you have answered all you can without looking at the book, take the book 
again and find the answers to the other questions. 


I. Write the names of the islands which lie between Scotland, Norway 
and Iceland!) 22a iy ve phils lee Mentapaae jy da , and 


ih Oho sel e © fy ele 


II. Underline the best reason why the land in this section is used chiefly 
for pasturage. 
1. There are many cattle and sheep there. 
2. The islands are covered with snow in winter. 
3. The islands are too wet to plow in the summer time. 


III. Fill in the blank spaces. 

Partly because of the fact that this region is not suited for agri- 
culture, the chief industry of the people is ............ (look at the 
picture on page 210) /..,.07) eee and) .40 tee ae are salted or 
dried and exported. The people’s houses are made of ............ 
BNC NAVE oeec ry eens roofs. 


IV. 


VI. 


VII. 


VIIl. 


IX. 


Appendia | 49 


Underline the best title for section 407. 

1. Summer tourists in northern waters. 

2. Why northern waters near Europe are warmer than those near 
North America. 

3. The Gulf Stream. — 

4. Ocean currents of the Atlantic Ocean. 


. Cross out the wrong words. 


ee than they 
warmer 
would otherwise be. The Gulf Stream flows from the Caribbean Sea 


Ocean currents make the lands we are studying 


( ° 
and the Gulf of Mexico ‘ Be across the cttw Ocean. 
\ northwest Pacific 
twice 
This current has 410 times as much water as the Mississippi 


1,800 times 
River. 


Mark a T before the sentence below if it is true and an F if it is false. 
.... The ports on the eastern coast of Siberia are open longer 
than those on the western coast of Norway. 


LP) 


Fill in the space below with the words “‘water”’ or ‘‘earth.’’ Be sure 
to put the right word in the right space. 

PUA daira ae heats more slowly than ............. 

ETL AN A Pe cools more slowly than ............. 

Mele AMES is warmed to a greater depth than ............. 


iS ah gs baie > Se holds its heat a shorter time than ............. 


Cross out the wrong words. 
is independent 
oath hea to esta 
very intelligent \ 


De ie: We very intelligent 


Would you think of the coast of Norway as a good place to farm? 
(Write yes or no.) 
Pe ERAT Ear ot Are Norwegian fjords much like the mouth of the 
Hudson River? ............ 
Underline the chief industries of Norway. 

Lumbering 

Cotton growing 

Rice growing 

Fishing 

Mining 


. Write a T before the sentences below if they are true and an F if 


they are false. 
.... Norwegian ships carry only Norwegian products. 
.... Water power will probably be an important factor in the 
future industrial development of Norway and Iceland. 


50 <A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


TEST I 


Put a T before each true statement and an F before each false statement. 


oe er ee eee 


$8 16), ‘Abt Ss 8Le 


ob Fe 9 oes Ss 


eo. \e) @ @ -Le 


& -& @ 16 (oo 6 


&” & je 2) 6) ee) oe 


6) & 0 6.8) 6 oe 


Che 16. 16 10 Fee To 


@ ©) 0 ¢ Jb) 6. 6 ts 


19) 8 We 8B. 16.6 


2.0 6 5 6 pe 


wm Mp) te. le, eas 6 


1 
2 
3 


Europe is the smallest of the six continents. 
North America has a climate more favorable to man than Europe. 
Europe produces more wheat than North America. 


4 Grain crops can be raised in nearly all of Central Europe. 


5 


Asia is the only continent which has a larger population than 
Europe. 


6 The population of Europe is five times as great as that of North 


i, 
8 


9 


America. 

The average size of farms in Europe is about 130 acres. 

The presence of numerous separated, sheltered sections favored 
the development of many nations in Europe. 
The development of railroads and transportation made it possible 
for the United States to become a large, single nation. 


10 England found it difficult to become a nation because its enemies 


17 


18 


found it easy to attack England by water. 


It is best to “See America First’? because Europe has few attrac- 
tions for the tourist. 


Most of the world’s great art has been produced in Europe. 
Europe has no buildings which were built before Columbus dis- 
covered America. 

There are cities in Europe which are two thousand years old. 
Countries like Spain and Italy were developed as separate nations 
because the mountains along the north protected them from 
attack by enemies. 


16 The manufacturing area of Europe is located in the northern and 


eastern sections. 
Because of the overcrowding of population of Europe, many 
people have migrated to North and South America. 


The cotton belt in Europe is located in Southern Europe, near 
the Mediterranean Sea. 


19 India and the Americas export wheat to western Europe. 
20 The unfavorable climate of western Europe has caused the 


population to be most dense on the eastern plain. 


21 The summers in the Green Northlands are cool and very wet. 
22 The climate of the Northlands is favorable to the growth of grass 


crops. 


23 Grazing is one of the chief occupations of the Northlands. 
24 The average temperature of any region is determined entirely 


by its distance from the equator. 


25 The waters of the Gulf Stream temper the climate of North 


America. 


Appendix 51 


Soe 26 Iceland, which lies near the Arctic Circle, has a climate more 
severe in winter than Canada and northern New England. 

Pee ass 27 Agriculture is the chief industry of Norway. 

MS 28 The Icelanders are people of Norwegian descent. 

ena ks 29 Fjords are the rich fertile valleys found in the mountains of 
Norway. 


........30 The Gulf Stream is like a river of warm water flowing through the 
northern Atlantic Ocean. 


int hae 31 It requires more heat to raise the temperature of water than to 
raise the temperature of an equal amount of earth, and the water 
holds the heat longer. 
rs. 6 32 The coastal plain of Norway most resembles our Atlantic coastal 
plain. 
ere 33 The direction of the prevailing winds helps to force the Gulf 
Stream toward the western coast of Europe. 
Hee <3 34 The lack of modern agricultural tools is the chief cause of the 
Norwegians turning to the shipping industry. 
Pigae o'', 35 Few fish are found in the cold waters about Norway. 
Wer eat 36 Norway has made great strides in developing the water power 
of her rivers. 
Miiaas 6. 37 Iceland is lacking in water power to develop. 
‘ee 38 The people of Iceland are among the most intelligent and best 
educated people in the world. 
39 Norwegian shipping has been developed because of the lack of 
agricultural resources in the homeland. 
ake 5. 40 Norwegian shipping is engaged chiefly in the export and import 
trade for her own country. 


STUDY SHEET III 


Tue Unitep KInGcpom 


vas FS 6 le 6 


At the time that Columbus discovered America, the British Isles were 
largely engaged in farming. Now they represent the greatest manufacturing 
center in the world. How did this change come about? Read from section 
414 through section 423, pages 214 through 218, and find out the answer. 
Read these sections twice. Then see how many of the questions below you 
can answer without looking at the book. After you have answered all you can, 
take your book and find the answers to the others. Read the text through twice 
before you begin answering the questions. 

I. Write the correct names under 1, 2, and 3. 
1. England, Scotland, and Wales. 


Wena Se 6 & OOS OS 6 6 es Oe 6 HE OLD 
Cie a Uma CO 8.8 8 6) es be Pe oa OG, @ 


Bite 656) eo @ #01 oe a 8 fal 6 E46, 6\'2, 8: 


52 A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


i 


LB a 


LY 


Vi 


VII. 


VIII. 


IX. 


AL; 


Underline the effect of the ice sheet (glacier) on the British Isles. 
1. Made the country cold. 

2. Deposited coal and iron. 

3. Made many lakes. 


Cross out the wrong words. 

The mountains in the British Isles are in 
1. Southern Scotland. 

2. England. 

3. Wales. 


Underline the reason why Ireland and England were once like each 
other. 

1. About the same size. 

2. Swampy. 

3. Mountainous. 


. Underline what the surface of Ireland reminds you of. 


1. A plate with a turned-up edge. 
2. A flat piece of tin. 
3. A high mountain. 


Underline the correct answer. 

Dr. Huntington says the energy of the British people is due to 
1. The cold climate. 

2. The Gulf Stream. 

3. Frequent changes in climate. 


Remember your lessons last week about the effect of the Gulf Stream 
on the western coast of England. Cross out the wrong words below. 


The summers in England are Goal and the winters are warm | f 
hot J cold f{ 


Underline the products for which the English climate is suited. 

Corn Rye Potatoes 

Wheat Small grains Tobacco 

Cotton Sugar Garden vegetables 
About how much greater is the British yield per acre of wheat, than 
that in the United States? .......... Is England growing more 
or less wheat than she did 100 years ago? .......... Write after 
this sentence the two industries which have taken the place of wheat 
growing in Enelands) Ghia kar ee and 2...) soe 

. Fill in the blank spaces. 

The climate of Ireland is too .......... for wheat. The chief 
agricultural products are .......... ar: its MME eee , and 
Beth, Pe earl nity. 284 Houses are built of .......... The people 
Gare hee ce eae in their fires. 
If you drove through Ireland, what farm animals would you expect 


to see? 


aL. 


XIII. 


XIV. 


XV. 


XVI. 


XVII. 


Appendix 53 


Cross out the wrong words. 


In 1492 the richest men in England lived in northeastern | England. 
southwestern{ 
Their chief industry was Seaside 
farming 


Fill in the blank spaces. 

BEFORE THE INVENTION OF THE STEAM ENGINE 
1. The power for weaving was .............. power. 
IE CGAOTIN OVALS) INBAIG: 19) hyo srtd savant koae has 

Beech OWI WELG. Aili nts o sve Us in number. 

ao (sPain nelda Nad denser cs oe ele ce ee vada 
AFTER THE INVENTION OF THE STEAM ENGINE 
1. The power for weaving was .............. 

ee SE Loti Was TIAdG IN ee. aes hen tl 

BUS LOWNA WErOl coy coche oe ello in number. 

AO UCORL nels Nad. Censer foes eke yc. 


Cross out the wrong words. 


The coal fields in the United States are (. fa th tei ; the sea, while 
those in England are oe \ the sea. 
far from | 
Coal fields are busy centers of leat: 
agriculture 
Me ., } easier wis 
The position of the coal fields made it Holic. for Great Britain to 


raw materials 


raw materials pee iy 
: finished products | 


finished products 
countries. 


and to send out 


Underline the two best reasons why Manchester became the greatest 
manufacturing center in the world. 

1. It is near the sea. 

2. It has a damp climate. 

3. It is in Lancashire. 

4, One can hear spinning machines there. 


The average schoolroom is about thirty feet long. 

The amount of cotton which Great Britain manufactures for every 
person in the United States would go how many times across such 
BAPOOTUTIY Gta nie tans haa tae 


Write below the three other textiles which the British Isles manu- 
facture. Write in the next space one city which manufactures it. 
Write in the third space one use to which you have seen this textile 
put. 


54 <A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


STUDY SHEET IV 


Remember our problem for the last lesson, ‘‘How did Great Britain become 
a great manufacturing center?”’ Now add this problem, ‘‘What is the char- 
acter of life in Great Britain today?’ Read from section 424 through section 
439, pages 218 through 224 with these two problems in mind. Read this 
through twice. Then see how many questions below you can answer without 
looking at your book. After you have answered all you can, open your book 
again and find the answers to the others. Do not begin to answer the questions 
below until you have read the lesson twice. 


I. Write one manufactured product after each city. 
Lo Birmingham yee oe tes nate te 
2 DEINOLE # te, Se saree coed hae 
Bo ANGWCASLICO Aoi coh eae ee ee 
4 Glaser Wa sitiaas cee Waker at eee 

II. Underline the two best reasons why England is the greatest manu- 
facturing center in the world, especially for ships. 
1. England has many good harbors. 
2. There is plenty of coal there to run the shipyard machinery. 
3. England leads the world in commerce. 
4. England has many colonies. 
III. Cross out the wrong words. 


The Clyde River is oe Spt 


one of the ee shipbuilding center(s) in 


the world. Belfast is a center for {... ~,,.._»* British coal is 
shipbuilding 
used for smelting | pace, ores. 
only iron 


IV. Underline the best title for section 425. 
1. The many people who live in English cities. 
2. How Garden Cities in England are making city life pleasanter. 
3. How cities make men unfit for military service. 
4. How a stenographer started a garden city. 
V. Cross out the wrong words. 
sats, for football. 
{cool 
\hot 


VI. On the left of the page are some facts about England. Below this 
are the results of these facts. Select the correct result for each fact 
and write it in the blank space after the fact. 

1. Sea boundary between England and Europe ................: 
2. Many drowned valleys like Hudson River ................. 

3. British factories produce goods for foreign countries ............. 
Results: 

Great Britain is a great importing and exporting center. 

Great Britain has been able to keep out of wars. 

Excellent harbors for shipping and trade. 


The winters in England are 


Other sports are played in the summers. 


VIL 


VIII. 
IX. 


‘0b 


XII. 


XIII. 


XIV. 


m © be 


Appendix 55 


Write in the blank spaces ‘“To Eng.” before things that are imported 
into England and “From Eng.” before things that are sent out of 
England. 


One A aoe Butter SEN bet Uientic ins CANOORS 
a ee COtLOn GlOLN enn haut, cue. bese.) RALDDAF 
neo ace Lumber Dan te hae tare cas ESTOS 
LAPS Machinery ee aie aod oe, ORE 


(in large amount) 
Would a British harbor look much like downtown New York?....... 


Write the name of the greatest trade center in the world ........... 


. Underline the best description of an “entrepot.”’ 


1. A place where goods are brought into a country. 

2. A place where goods are imported from one country and exported 
to another country. 

3. A place from which goods are exported. 


Write a T or an F in front of these sentences. 

.... England has a small carrying trade. 

.... The quickest way to go from New York to Russia is through 
England. 

.... The English are not an energetic people. 


Underline the best title for section 437. 

1. How England has come to hold large foreign investments. 
2. English financiers abroad. 

3. Ranches in Australia and diamond mines in Africa. 

4. London as the world’s greatest banking center. 


Write below three ways by which the English have gotten possession 
of new countries. After the last way, write the name of a man who 
added to the Empire in that way. 


Underline the three things which give the greatest promise for the 
future of England. 


Agriculture The climate of the country Oil production 
Coal deposits Grazing Cattle breeding 
TEST II 


Put a T before each true statement and an F before each false one. 


. England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland form the British Empire. 
. Because of her climate, England produces much wool. 

. There are many mountains in southeastern England. 

. Ireland has rough, rugged surface like that of Scotland. 


56 A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


cnr 


ail oP) 


om 0 


. Rapid changes of weather cause people to feel energetic. 


. Many of the cyclonic storms from the United States pass over the 


British Isle. 


. Ireland has a cool, damp climate. 


. Corn is raised in great abundance in Ireland. 


. Ireland is called the Emerald Isle because of the peculiar color of 


the soil. 


. The mild climate of England is determined largely by her nearness 


to the equator. 


. The English produce a greater number of bushels of wheat to the 


acre than we do here in the United States. 


. Much of England is devoted to dairy farming. 


. Farming is the chief industry of Ireland. 


. Before the development of machinery, England was a great man- 


ufacturing center in Europe. 


. The development of power machinery took the weaving of cloth, 


out of the homes where it had been done before. 


. Many of England’s coal mines lie near the sea. 


. Manchester is the chief cotton manufacturing center of the world. 


. Because of the damp climate, great difficulties are encountered in 


weaving cotton and linen in the British Isles. 


. In Ireland most of the weaving is still done in the homes, especially 


around Belfast. 


. The manufacturing centers are located largely along the eastern 


coast of England. 


. Sheffield is the center of the manufacture of cutlery. 


. England is exceeded by the United States in the amount of ship- 


building she does. 


. Great Britain imports coal from the United States and Italy. 


. Most of the people of the British Isles live in cities. 


The climate of England is too severe for out-door sports in the 
winter. 


. England’s location near the mainland of Europe has helped her to 


neta 


teonteiat 


atthe wash 
. 00. 


pay 


become a great trading nation. 


Much of the coast of the British Isles is bleak and forbidding like 
that of northwestern North America. 


British prosperity depends on the trade which her steamship lines 
and manufacturing make possible. 


England is the greatest trade center of the world. 


American manufacturers go to England to buy raw products pro- 
duced in many distant countries. 


New York City is a greater trade center than London. 
England has invested large sums of money in foreign countries. 


Appendix 57 


..33. London is regaining her position as the world’s greatest financial 
center. 


..34. The British are a home-loving people who do not like to leave the 
mother land. 


..80. England is fast approaching her limit of growth in wealth and 
population. 


...386. Agriculture is the chief industry of the British Isles. 


..d7. The abundance of coal in the British Isles enables the people to 
engage in manufacturing. 


..88. The energy of the British people has built up an empire greater than 
the United States and all her possessions. 


..39. England produces most of the food needed to support her popula- 
tion. 


..40. The British government has extended its boundaries in the interest 
of trade. 


STUDY SHEET V 


Turn to the regional map on pages 204-205. Find section C of this map. 
Section C includes parts of Germany and France and all of Belgium and Hol- 
land. The green parts of this map are very low in altitude. Notice that all 
of section C is low. 

Because they are low, that is, near sea level, these countries have certain 
problems which are different from those of England about which you have 
just been studying. What are these problems and how do the people solve 
them? Read from section 440 through section 445 and find out. Read these 
sections through twice. Then see how many of the questions below you can 
answer without looking at your book. After you have answered all you can, 
open your books and find the answers to the others. 


I. The Low Countries are the delta of the Rhine River. Underline the 
best explanation below of how a delta is formed. 
1. The sea fills in the land. 
2. The glaciers make it. 
3. A river carries sediment and deposits it near its mouth. 
II. The Low Countries are remarkable for two things. Write them 
below. 


III. The Lowlands have two advantages. Write them below. Then 
write in the next space the two industries for which these advantages 
are a help. 


IV. edeitine the phrase which tells what Dutch windmills do. 
1. Pump water from fields into the sea. 
2. Run cotton mills. 
3. Run dredges to deepen the rivers. 


58 A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


V. Underline the best title for section 442. 
1. Agriculture in the Low Countries. 
2. How the Low Countries make the most of their land. 
3. Raising potatoes in the Rhine Valley. 


VI. An acre of wheat in Belgium yields about how many times as many 
bushels as an acre in the United States? ............ An acre 
of potatoes in Holland yields about how many times as many bushels 
as an acre in the United States? ........ 


VII. Underline three other products of the Low Countries. 


Sugar beets Cheese Tobacco Oats 
Corn Rice Butter Flower bulbs 
Cotton Forage beets Rye 


VIII. Underline the best reason why the same people in the Low Countries 
engage in both manufacturing and farming to a greater extent than 
they do in Great Britain. 

1. There is more farm land in Great Britain. 
2. There is less coal in the Low Countries than in England. 
3. Raw products are produced more in the Low Countries. 


IX. What do we call people in this country who work in a city and live 
in the country, traveling to and from the city by train? 


i i) 


X. Underline the best reason why the Rhine Valley which ends in the 
Low Countries is like the Hudson River. 
1. They are both important rivers. 
2. Both rivers allow shipping to enter easily into the Atlantic Ocean. 
3. Both rivers form a trade route from important sections within a 
country to a great ocean. 


XI. Below on the left are three problems which the Low Countries have 
to face. Below these are three ways that the Low Countries use to 
solve these problems. Select the right solution for each problem and 
write it in the blank space. 


Problems. 


1. Rivers fill up with sediment... 2... 5....... 4. +e 
2. More dock room needed.) | - .... 2... 64.» Se 
3. Hard to. build roads in damp countries. .|.... 0. .2. eee 


Solutions. 


Use canals for roads. 
Building greater docks. 
Dredge rivers and make dikes. 


STUDY SHEET VI 


In our last lesson we learned of some of the problems of the Low Countries 
of Europe. This lesson tells how a great manufacturing center has been built 
up there. Read sections 446 through 451 and find out about it. Read these 


Appendix 59 


sections through twice. Then see how many of the questions below you can 
answer without looking at your book. After you have answered all you can, 
open your book and find the answers to the others. 


I. Underline the best reason why the harbors of the Low Countries are 


SLs 


III. 


Dy 


‘EL 


VII. 


called’ a Gateway Region. 

1. Antwerp, Rotterdam and Amsterdam are busy places. 

2. Every day ships unload there. 

3. Antwerp is a great entrepot. 

4. Goods enter through these ports and are reshipped to the interior 
of Europe. 


Underline the kind of products which are traded in most extensively 
in the Low Country ports. 

Tobacco, cinnamon, grain, cotton, lumber and other raw prod- 
ducts, ivory. 


Cross out the wrong words. 


ees 


oe region is served through the ports of the Low Countries. 


eae? St . focean vessels Italy 
Merchandise is shipped in iRhing Gre as far as | NPE Als H 


raw materials 


manufactured goods Habe! Si aped 


They bring back to the ports 


exports 


abroad. Belgium ‘ coal to other lands. 
imports 


Summarize in two words each of the four advantages of the Low 
Countries for manufacturing. 


. Underline the best reason why the factories of the Low Countries 


are like those of England. 

1. Both are very important. 

2. Both use raw materials. 

3. Both import their raw materials. 


Fill in the blank spaces. 
The landscape in Holland and Belgium is like a procession of...... 
Meee Ss Iron ore for factories comes from the province of ........ 


Beli ial re in the country of ............. The greatest iron manu- 
facturing region is near ........66...0045 RRA NEN hs oe River 
carries the ore to the famous ............ Works, which formerly 


manufactured guns. Now this plant manufactures ............... 


Write below the names of four great textile centers. 
Write after each one the country in which it is located. 


60 <A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


VIII. Write below three manufactured products for which much coal is 
used in the Low Countries. 


IS eis tasty itty stl VP ieee Vena hic a 3.4 Sad ee ee 
IX. Write below the names of three great manufacturing cities of Belgium. 
LOG Ae 2. WAL RA ee eae Sa: ls, Ske SAUL 


X. Write below the names of two important products of the Low Coun- 
tries which show how intensive manufacturing is carried on. Under- 
line the one which is manufactured in homes of the people. 


XI. Underline the best reason why Holland imports stone and logs from 
Norway and Sweden. 
1. There are great quarries and lumber yards in Scandinavia. 
2. Stones and logs are used in making dikes. 
3. Holland does not have enough stone and logs for her needs. 
XII. Underline the best reason why the people of the Low Countries 
speak several languages. 
1. They are well educated. 
2. Several languages were developed in the region of the Low Coun- 
tries. 
3. Four nations which speak different languages live very close to- 
gether. 


XIII. Cross out the wrong words. 
: : lazy 

The people of this section are fF ae ni 
more 
fewer 
absolute 
limited 
{little mies 
where the people have ee voice in the government. These two 


colonies. 


Although the region is very small, it has | people than all of 


New England. Holland and Belgium are | monarchies 


few 


XIV. Underline the greatest possibility for future development in the Low 
Countries. 
1. Trade and manufacturing. 
2. Agricultural pursuits. 
3. Grazing. 


countries have marae 


TEST III 


Put a T before each true statement and an F before each false one. 

Oe oda ic 1. In the Low Countries, the rivers flow through narrow valleys 
cut deep below the surface of the land. 

SUE! 2. The lower Rhine valley is the greatest manufacturing region of 
the mainland of Europe. 

Weaisteny 3. The Low Countries have taken much land from the sea by build- 
ing dikes and pumping out the water. 


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COR © 6 9 tw 6 


Sa Cie ep @€ 6 9 


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Appendix 61 


. The land won from the sea is not of very high quality. 
. Windmills are used for pumping out the water in the Lowlands. 
. Farmers in the United States make more money per acre than 


those in the Lowlands. 


. Much rice is raised in the Lowlands, which are too wet for other 


crops. 


. The Dutch use much Canadian butter and oleomargarine because 


they do not produce enough to supply their own needs. 


. The potato yield per acre in the Lowlands is higher than that in 


America. 


. The Dutch farmers raise tulips and hyacinths because they are 


a flower-loving people. 


. Germany has more experimental stations for agriculture for her 


size than the United States has. 


. Because of the lack of fuel for manufacturing, the Low Coun- 


tries have encouraged farming. 


. Farming is the most important industry in Belgium. 
. The Rhine River forms a great trade route to the base of the 


Alps. 


. The flat country and many rivers make travel very easy in the 


Low Countries. 


. Little work has been done on the Rhine River to make it navi- 


gable. 


. The canal system of the Low Countries is much less extensive 


than that in New York State. 


. The mouth of the Rhine River opens on one of the great trade 


routes of the world. 


. The Low Countries have spent much money improving their 


harbors. 


. Only horses are used to pull the milk wagons in Holland and 


Belgium. 


. Antwerp has the greatest entrepot trade of any European country. 
. The great majority of the trade of the Low Country ports is in 


manufactured goods which are being shipped to all ports of the 
world. 


. Antwerp is the chief ivory market of the world. 
. The United States ships much food and raw materials to the 


Low Countries. 


. Belgium exports much coal. 
. The high state of development of agriculture has checked the 


growth of manufacturing in the Low Countries. 


. The climate of the Low Countries is much like that of Eastern 


Canada. 


62 A 


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Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


28. Belgium is the only country in this region which produces coal. 
29. The factories of this region import most of their raw materials. 
30.. Essen is at the center of the iron producing regions. 

31. The Krupp works now produce some of the world’s greatest guns. 


32. The factories of the Low Countries are so busy manufacturing 
iron goods that they do not have much time for textiles. 


33. Amsterdam is the world’s greatest diamond center. 

34. Holland exports large quantities of stone and logs. 

35. It is necessary for the business people of this region to be able 
to use many languages. 

36. Holland and Belgium have a population greater than that of New 
England. 

37. Holland and Belgium together have a larger area than Texas. 

38. The cities of this region are noted for their neatness and industry. 

39. Siberia is the largest colony of Belgium. 


40. The people of the Low Countries are dependent for prosperity 
and future growth on the foods and raw materials imported 
from abroad. 


STUDY SHEET VII 


Tue Great ATLANTIC PLAIN OF FRANCE 


Turn to the map on pages 204-205. Look at the great green section of 


France. 


Green on this map means that the country islow. Sections 452-459 


describe this region. Read these through twice. ‘Then see how many of the 
questions below you can answer without looking at the book. After you have 
answered all you can, open your book and find the answers to the other 
questions. 


a7 


Cross out the wrong words. 


The great plain of the French Republic slopes ft and 


nave east | toward the sea. It is a PART el Aa section with 
northwest agricultural 
few 


nae cities. The climate is warmer than that of England, though 


much ee it. This section has Ms coal. It supports itself 
unlike much 
Faroueh bers: \. 
manufacturing 


II. 


Cross out all the wrong sentences. 

. The French people rent their farms. 

. The French farmers live in little villages. 

. The French farmers each own a few acres. 
. The French farmers live on their farms. 


Ee Wh Re 


III. 


IV. 


VI. 


VII. 


VIII. 


IX. 


Appendix 63 


Look at the picture on page 235. Underline the best reason for the 
different colors. 

1. The soil is of different colors. 

2. The crops have different colors. 


Underline the most important kinds of animal breeding in France. 
Horses Sheep Swine Cows Goats 


. Write below the names of the cities near which the chief wine districts 


are located. 


Write three of its chief products atte Brittany, and one after Nor- 
mandy. 


RE wn erode ks IMOEITIAICEY bah. Scheie stage) Linea, 
STE Se NI SOR 

What is the name of the popular song which will help you to remember 

ICE IEL DIOUUNCGC Wh. vapid se eta e eth esc sid picid ies Kate disc ete 

Write an F before the sentences below which are especially true of the 

people of France and an A before those which are true of the people 

of America. 

....1. Save money and put it in the bank. 

....2. Make good dishes to eat, out of left-overs. 

....0. Waste much food. 

....4. Pack vegetables in wooden crates which are later thrown 
away. . 

....5. Use willow baskets for vegetables, which are made by the 
people themselves. 

....6. Get two crops, one of vegetables and one of nuts from the 
same land. 

....¢. Careless of forest reserves. 

Underline the best reason why pine trees keep the sand from blowing 

inland and burying the forests. 

1. The pine trees produce turpentine. 

2. The trees hold the water in the soil. 

3. The roots of the trees hold the sand from blowing. 

In figures 372 and 374 there are shown three artistic things which are 

mentioned in the first two paragraphs in section 456. Write their 

names below. 

Pew s. SILI BD ARIA RO. HS GE ee. ae Le eee 

Now write below the name of the kind of artistic work which is men- 

tioned in these paragraphs but which is not shown in these pictures. 


. Below are the names of three cities of France. Write after each the 


most important thing for which it is noted. Write two things if you 
want to. 

ies SEER Som CALS ccrten alate he Ce ved (bs take eben baraiicd wcwtags vate ie 

STE Mickie Maraciry SILA AAEe gh uneiuaod cin kd ndiwe ned aaiess 

OEIC SEE IES? Ban REG RLS EPS oan a a 


64 <A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


XI. Turn to the map on page 204, and find Bordeaux and Havre. Put 
the name of the body of water on which each is located after their 
names below. Then write in the next spaces two important products 
which are handled by Havre and one by Bordeaux. 


Havre). silos ot dates ees Dae e's dew Sie ltlel ae i 
PAPI MAA A 
DOPUGAUN ss cy eer ow ne eer | PP 
What city has direct communication mith Paris?. <a S sacee eae 
XII. Cross out the wrong words. 

1 Canals 

The Atlantic plain of France is by equipped for trade. Bays 
poorly Rivers 


connect France with great coal fields. 


XIII. It takes about twenty-four hours to go from New York to Chicago. 
About how many times as long is this as the time it takes to go from 
London to’ Parist,).3i ies noe ee eee Would the service by air- 
plane take longer or shorter? ...............e000- 


XIV. Underline the best definition of a centralized government. 
1. A government of a republican form. 
2. A government in which much power is given to one centralized 
authority. 
3. A government in which much of the power is in the hands of the 
separate counties, cities and districts. 


XV. Underline below the sections where France’s chief colonies are. 
Underline twice the ones where white men can live. 
1. North Africa 3. South Africa 6. Southwestern Asia 
2. Central Africa 4. North Asia 7. Southeastern Asia 
5. Central Asia 
Underline the activities which promise most for the future of France. 


Agriculture. 
Manufacturing large iron and steel products. 
Water power. 
Manufacturing light, fine articles of iron and steel. 
Grazing. 
Commerce. 
Mining. 
STUDY SHEET VIII 
THe GREAT PLAIN OF CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE 


We are now going to study about a continuation of the plain of France. 
This continuation runs east to the edge of Europe and on into Asia, Turn to 
the map on page 204. Plains are green on this map. Follow the plain from 
Amsterdam to Berlin, to Warsaw, to Moscow. 

What kind of people live on this plain, and what do they do for a living? 
Sections 460 through 466 tell you about some of them. Read these sections 
through twice, then see how many of the questions below you can answer. 
Then find in your book the answers to the other questions. 


ge 


TIT. 


IV. 


Vi 


VII. 


VIII. 


IX. 


Appendix 65 


. Cross out the wrong words. 


The great central plain of the continent of Europe is fet the 


mountains 


church spires J” Iba Boks 


tallest things on the landscape are 


no a few 


The spaces below are for the five means of transportation on the 
great plain. One of them is given. 
1. Arms of the sea. ss PEE a eae eRe Det eae Ula raat 


aa fenced fields. There are i" forests. 


Cross out the wrong words. 
As one goes from west to east on the great plain, winters become 


ea , the summers become co and the rainfall (7°T*}, 
warmer cooler less 


. Write after each section of the great plain another section of the 


world which resembles it in climate. 

SUNY GGA SECHION |b Me's Cee cla ee ee ee 

LEP AE HECEION 2 duke el Gy Galant elas wae 

RSPUMBLOETE BOCKION “. Ui's's els ctiad oe i Rthkees 

Underline once the products of this plain. Underline twice the three 
most important ones. 


Rye Sugar cane Rice Spring wheat 
Oats Beets Potatoes Barley 

Cotton Tobacco Corn 

der piere ony Staging Ol THIS DIANE W)o 5 ve isl die Biases pene daw 
VVAIGL OLS na re, Litt Gdn eit oa ics 


Underline the best reason why the central plain is now the home of 

many different peoples. 

1. In ancient times, many men travelled with flocks and herds on 

the plain. 

2. It is a good country for agriculture and grazing. 

3. In ancient times, many different people lived in this region and 
their descendants live there today. 


Underline three ways in which the Scandinavians resemble each 
other. 

1. They are tall, blond people. 

2. They live near each other. 

3. They have the same sort of industries. 

4. They speak similar languages. 

5. They are living in the same country. 


Is there a section of the United States near this school which has a 
BLMAC Li kelt bat, OL wenger fe Pls Sed Wet ebb Where? 


Ow d. 6 e. 8 We UM Sry hee oie 64 Ve 


CB i 


XII. 


XIII. 


XIV. 


XY. 


XVI. 


XVII. 


Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 

. Underline the chief products of Denmark. 
Eggs Tobacco Wheat 
Corn Butter Oats 
Rice Hogs and pork Barley 

. There is an interesting story about selling bad eggs in section 465. 
Have you read it carefully? What happens to the man who sells 
three’ bad: eggs? oo EO 
Is the codperative organization of the farmers a government in- 
stitution? aides ys a ORIN tle Care aia wee dela en ne 
Who -runs) ithe rs AS 
Look at the statement in the book of the places to which Denmark 
sends its butter. Then look at the map on page 8. Which country 
to which the Danes sell butter is the farthest from Denmark?...... 
Write below in the first six spaces the kinds of feed the Scandinavians 
use for their cows. Underline the ones they get from other countries. 
In the last three spaces write the three other agricultural products 
grown in Scandinavia. Put a question mark after the one grown 
the least. 
1 A A OLIMG SUN Aad ECB ee PANG rue koe Piha & Beri. 0. ae 
AN ASIA ea Nie 20004) 1) ae 2 Deriiies i. Sone US 
rH a eer ey ha la MONE Se RS Fla ee Be ie Uebel LU Ea 
Ai. Migntalts in! tiane! ai hieca teleitel he abated 
Dae ae iis oa us aka, Conte at oie Ue Ge OS 
ee MAUEAIA ES TARO ER TS SQ TATA 2 
What part of this country does Scandinavia resemble? ............ 
Does the same reason account for the resemblance? ............ 
What was ito haa aes in cle al 
Write below two manufactured products of Scandinavia. Underline 
the one which is worth most in proportion to its weight. 
Lopate eG ad OND St Heed Si PO De ined ce dads Le ae 
Underline two things below in which Scandinavian capitals are 
like New York. 
1. Dirty 
2. Clean 
3. Manufacturing done there. 
4. Very large. 
What are the governments like the Scandinavian ones called? .... 

TEST IV 


Put a T before each true statement and an F before each false one. 


le} Wi Be) 810: eB: 


sigs Je."s." e410 \e) 8 


CL Ree, BAS ie e's 


1. The French peasants own their farms instead of renting them. 
2. The farmers live on their farms. 

3. Many different crops are raised. 

4. Little live stock is raised in France. 

5. Much wine is made in France. 


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Appendix 67 


. Large coal fields have made France chiefly a manufacturing 


country. 


. Brittany is much like Wales. 
. The French people are careless in their use of money. 
. Much material that is wasted in America is put to practical use 


in France. 


. The French made good use of their land. 

. The French people are very artistic. 

. Beautiful cathedrals are found only in the largest cities. 

. Many of the cathedrals took hundreds of years to complete. 

. Paris is noted for its beauty and its art. 

. Paris is lacking in railroad facilities. 

. Art has not influenced the trade of Paris. 

. France exports chiefly raw materials. 

. The government of France is more highly centralized than ours. 
. The French colonies are largely peopled by French settlers. 

. France is now making a rapid industrial growth. 

. The Great Central Plain of Europe extends in the same direction 


as that in North America. 


. This plain is frequently broken by small ranges of mountains. 

. This plain is adapted to transportation. 

. Water transportation is available here. 

. The winters on this plain are very mild. 

. Many food crops are raised on the central plain of Europe. 

. In ancient times this section was unknown to man. 

. Many different nationalities live there now. 

. The climate of the Scandinavian countries has tended to make 


the people lazy. 


. Codperative marketing has done much to aid the Danish farmers: 
. The Scandinavians care little for education. 

. Norway has much rich farm land. 

. Much manufacturing is done in Norway. 

. Sweden manufactures some fine steel products. 

. The Scandinavians keep many cows because they can raise food 


for them so easily. 


. The Norwegians, Swedes and Danes are much alike. 

. Electric power is coming into use in these countries. 

. These countries are republics in their government. 

. The people have much power in the government of these coun- 


tries. 


. Most of the Scandinavian cities are unattractive. 


68 <A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


STUDY SHEET IX 


Last week we studied about four countries on the great plain of Central 


Europe. 


This week we are going to study about six more. One of them is 


very advanced in education and manufacturing; four of them are new coun- 
tries and one is very backward. Our lesson for today is from section 467, 
pages 240-244. Read this lesson through twice, and then see how many of 
the questions below you can answer without looking at your books. After 
you have answered all you can, open your books and find the answers to the 


others. 


I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


VI. 


VII. 


What proportion of the German people live in the central plain of 
Huropel ieee. sw aes Cross out the words below which are not true 
of the German people. 
Lazy. Well educated. Good agriculturists. 
Ignorant. Good in manufacturing. 


Put a T before the true statements and an F before the false ones. 
MEALS E The German people eat large amounts of potatoes. 

A oeethns & The German soil has always been very good soil. 

Pay Ss The German soil is not good for wheat. 

Be roca The Germans eat more wheat than rye bread. 


Underline the crops below which are raised in Germany and which 
are good food for both animals and people. 
rye potatoes barley oats 


Cross out the wrong words. 

German universities before the war were tise fine : 

chemistry 

history 

geography |” 
| physics 

history 

chemical dyes | ° 


They were particularly prominent in their teaching of | 


Therefore the Germans became great experts in| 


fair scientific books and also 


Germans have written 
excellent 


excellent, a 
fairly good i 


. Coal is found in Germany near what city? .................+.+-- 


What does this lead you to believe is the leading industry of this 
TEMION sete Vn hinge we pa eh ake Rie hee 


There are four great German cities mentioned below. You should 
remember them. Write one leading industry after each one. 

1, Laipsig eS. een ae 3. Chemnitz... 2... eee 
2,) Breslau, Sree eee 4.“Dresden .. 7/3" 3) ee 
Look at the map on page 242 and find Berlin. What do the black 
lines leading away from the city represent? .............. Under- 


line below the chief things for which Berlin is noted. 


VIII. 


IX. 


2.8 


XII. 


XIII. 


Ly 


XV. 


Appendix 69 


1. Railroad center. 

2. Largest city in all Europe. 
3. Capital of Germany. 

4. Very little trade. 


Underline the reasons why New York and Berlin are alike. 
1. Many public playgrounds. 

2. Capitals of their countries. 

3. Many apartment buildings. 

4. Many one-family houses. 


Find the Kiel Canal on page 242. It is northwest of Berlin. Write 
below the names of the two bodies of water which it connects. 


. Cross out the wrong words. 


Germany before the war had hon foreign trade. 
much 


imported 
exported 


imported| 


raw materials and manufac- 
exported { 


The Germans 
tured goods. 


The four new countries since the war are described in section 472. 
Find them on the map on page 242. They border on the Baltic 
Sea. Write their names in order, putting as number 1 the farthest 
north, and as number 4 the one that is farthest south. 


SUT oss A sikte db SAPS; sik ae 


Underline what the World War did for Poland. 
1. Divided it up among Russia, Prussia and Austria. 
2. Reunited it after 100 years of oppression by foreign rulers. 


Underline the two most important reasons why the countries of the 
Letts, Lithuanians and Esthonians are alike. 

1. They are not great nations. 

2. They were formerly under the oppressive rule of Russia. 

3. They were given independence by the World War. 

4. They are about the same size. 


Underline the two best reasons why the new Baltic States do not 

grow as good crops as the Germans do. 

1. The land in the Baltic States is poor. 

2. They have not had as much education or help from the gov- 
ernment as the Germans have. 

3. They are more interested in manufacturing than in agriculture. 


What proportion of the Russian people cannot read or write?....... 
Underline the best reason for this. 
1. The people do not want to learn to read and write. 


10 A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


2. The former Czar and his friends wanted the people to remain 
ignorant. 
3. The people do not have many schools. 


XVI. Put an R before the statements below which are true of Russia 


and a D before those which are true of Denmark. 
APL eity ce 1. Villages well governed. 

EM eye? 2. Villages neat and clean. 

WY fren 3. Poor village government. 

mh retin etl 4. Fields yield large crops per acre. 
darts 5. Villages dirty with muddy roads. 

Bn REE 6. Homes have dirt floors and straw roofs. 


XVII. Underline the statements below which are true of the Russian 


people. 

1. Weak and small. 

. Can do more work than Americans. 

. Very sad and do not enjoy dancing and singing. 
. Big and strong. 

. Polite and friendly. 


STUDY SHEET X 


Or Hm GW bo 


Today we continue our study of the Great Plain of Europe, particularly 
the country of Russia. The lesson includes sections 475 through 480, pages 
244-246. Read these sections through twice and then see how many of the 
questions below you can answer. After you have answered all you can, open 
your books and find the answers to the other questions. 


L. 


II. 


TG 


Lic 


Fill in the blank spaces. 
The Great Plain is nearly ... 2. .0...5 00.06 of Europe. 
It has about as many people as ........... 


Underline the best reason for the lack of manufacturing on the plain. 
1. No raw materials. 

2. Backwardness of the people. 

3. Long, cold winters. 


Cross out the wrong words. 


Most of the manufacturing in Russia is done ai saps during 
in the homes 


the { hilar : Factories have been built only FoCeRey on the 
\ summer for a long time 
plain. 
Most Russian factories before the war were owned by aii 
Russians 


Write first one important fact about each city, and then two products 
it manufactures. 


Warsaw CU ee a ee | PR gre yy 
Ds. oa: sig athe tah discs 
Moscow atari au eee Le hi cces-s) gn eae eee eae 


Lb 


VIL. 


VIII. 


cx: 


XI. 


XII. 


Appendix 71 


. Underline the statements below which describe the Russian people. 


1. Live chiefly through agriculture. 

2. Prosperous. 

3. Educated. 

4, Poor. 

5. Live through manufacturing. 

6. Ignorant. 

Underline the chief articles of food of the Russian people. 
Wheat bread Cabbage 

Mutton Eggs 

Rye bread Potatoes 


Look at the wheat map on page 206, and notice the great Russian 
wheat region. To what part of North America is the climate similar? 
There are two times for planting wheat. Put the right one after the 
section where it is practised. 

PP OAM LO MEMS ul Prison Marontade anaid elise Wirelos Poca tah « 
ee aE LOG NEBr athe Rey UN ri ata la es ae ae bk 


Underline the best reason why the Russian yield of wheat is not so 
great as the German. 

1. The farmers of Russia are too ignorant to cultivate well. 

2. Soil of Russia is not so good as that of Germany. 

3. The peasants live in poor houses. 


Write the material from which the various parts of the Russian 


houses are made. 
AVY Olas aberbertaeg 0) MEY hy Bye ag AL via) id ae ae a 


. Underline the number of Russians and Poles who used to leave their 


homes to help in harvests elsewhere. 
1,000 
100,000 
1,000,000 
5,000,000 


Underline the best title for section 478. 

1. Harvesting wheat in Russia. 

2. Why the Poles harvest German wheat. 

3. How the Poles and Russians used to leave their homes to harvest 
wheat elsewhere. 


There are three chief ways of sending surplus food out of Russia. 
Write below after each section named the way the food is shipped. 
Then write after sections 1 and 3 one city that is the center for trade 
in that section. 

RRM S OR RUOOLEOM aman ien tamer tn by tas ot We ann Sp violcabiis 


72 A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


XIII. Underline the best definition of a central European fair. 
1. A market at which home-made goods are exchanged for manu- 


XIV. 


XV. 


factured goods. 


2. A public celebration at which all the people put on their best 


clothes and have a good time. 


Underline the best reason why fairs are not so important as formerly. 
1. The building of railroads. 
2. The people have become tired of them. 


Underline the best prospects for the future on the great plain. 
1. More food production in the western part. 

2. More food production in Poland and Russia. 

3. Mining in Russia. 

4. Manufacturing in Russia. 

5. Commerce and trade in Russia and Poland. 


TEST V 


Put a T before each true statement and an F before each false one. 


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eceoeeeerve 


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see ee d © 5 


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$80 ©. 8 6 2:2 


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. The Central Plain is an important part of Germany. 

. The soil on the plain was originally very fertile. 

. The treatment of the soil has exhausted it. 

. Germany has encouraged education. 

. The Germans made great progress in science. 

. Germany has had many famous musicians. 

. Lack of coal prevented manufacturing in Germany. 

. Most of the people in Berlin own their homes. 

. The German trade was the result of careful study of other 


countries. 


. Little attention was paid to transportation by water. 

. Poland has always been an independent country. 

. Education is poor in the New Baltic States. 

. The people of Poland are not intelligent. 

. The Russians have had little opportunity for education. 

. Before the World War, few Russians owned their land. 

. The Russian villages are very attractive. 

. The Russians farm very intelligently. 

. After the World War the land was given to the Russian peasants. 
. The Russians are fond of music. 

. The Danish people have had more opportunities than the 


Russians. 


. There is little factory work in Russia because there are so few 


people. 


. Lack of transportation has hindered Russia’s progress. 


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Appendix ) 73 


..23. There is no coal in Poland. 
..24. Most of the Russian factories were run by foreigners before the 


war. 


..25. The Russians manufacture many articles by hand. 

..26. Russia has one of the greatest wheat fields of the world. 
..27. The wheat fields of Russia have fine rich soil. 

..28. Much machinery is used in Russian farming. 

..29. The people of Russia are very poor. 

. .30. Wheat is practically the only crop raised in Russia. 

..31. Most of the wheat is used by the Russians. 

..32, Odessa is a great wheat port. 

..33. Many Poles used to go out of their own country to work. 
..04, Many cities in Europe were started by fairs. 

..35. These fairs were held several times a year. 

. .86. The question of transportation has no effect on these fairs. 
..37. This region imports most of its machinery. 

..38. In the western part of this plain much more food could be raised. 
..389. Russia and Poland could raise much more food. 

. .40. Lack of coal and iron prevents manufacturing in Russia. 


STUDY SHEET XI 


GREAT NORTHERN ForeEsts oF EvROPE 


Look at the map of page 204 and find section F in the northern part of 


Europe. 
fa a Sioa ae Read sections 481 through section 487, pages 247 to 


Testes ign land: OF low JANG). .2 , cso sre aie What grows there 


248 very carefully. Then see how many of the questions below you can answer 
without looking at the book. After you have answered all you can, find the 
answers to the others in your book. 


I. 


IT. 


III. 


£y. 


Where is the region in North America which is like the Great Forest 
Me UERT TSE ULLTOUIC Epes rae ya eels ols alste Miaka eee Wieaoe Ried we ke Bini orale aces 


_ Name the two chief countries south of this region in North America. 


1 AL ge Ne TERRE Oe it Si ea a PINES 9 Hiv ON Ee Aa Saal RMA ERE At ae 
There are two parts to this belt, a treeless zone of frozen tundra and 
a belt of trees. Which is farther north?................ What kinds 


Cross out the wrong statement. 
This belt runs only across Europe. 
This belt runs across both Europe and Asia. 


Underline the reason for bogs and lakes in this section. 
1, The great glacier. 

2. The low land. 

3. Frequent rains. 


74 A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


Vie 


VI. 


VII. 


VIII. 


IX. 


mal, 


XII. 


Underline the kinds of animals found in the forests. Underline twice 
the two which furnish men with something useful. Write what that 
thing is in space below the names of the animals. 

lions elephants wolves 
bears wild boars leopards. 


eee eevre5uuesereeece se Ce 800 e 86 08 6 06 6 8 O68 6 OE Oe gs 6 Os 6 8 ee ee SS Se 


Underline the chief point of difference between the European Forest 
Belt and the American Forest Belt. 

1. The people do not kill the same animals. 

2. The people do not eat the same kinds of food. 

3. In Europe some of the land has been prepared for farming. 


Underline the two chief occupations of the men of the northern forest. 
Lumbering Hunting Manufacturing 
Fishing Farming 


Cross out the wrong words. 
streams \ 


The logs are carried out of the woods by psi hs 


In the ee these logs are shipped all over Europe. 
summer 


Write below the three ways in which the lumber is used in Europe. 


. Underline the best title for section 484. 


1. Logging by rafts in Europe. 
2. How lumber is sent down the Volga River. 
3. Transportation of lumber on the European plain. 


Write below in the first space the name of the most important metal 
produced in the great forest section of Europe. Write in the next 
spaces the two countries which chiefly import it. In the next spaces 
write the names of the two bodies of water over which it is carried 
in boats. The words “winter” and “summer” will tell you in which 
space to write each body of water. You will need to look at the map 
‘on page 204 and find Narvik in Norway to answer the last part of 
this question. 

UT Ae PS Winter’) 2) 994 ee 


eoerererer eee eee ere ee 


SSE ee A dn A Summer, Se ee 


Underline the best reason why the port of Narvik is open while the 
ports of Lake Superior in the United States are closed in the middle 
of winter. 

1. Narvik is farther north. 

2. Lake Superior is farther north. 

3. Warm ocean currents. 


XIII. 


XIV. 


Appendix 75 


Write in the first space below the name of the other mineral product 
of this region. Write in the next space the proportion of the world’s 
supply which used to be produced here. Write in the last two spaces 
the uses to which this product is put. 


SPel eS) 46656) 8 SRS OOS, 1) © O16) os, 6 SSS) © BAe eS 8 OF eC a SC alee SK e ce ce) ere 6,6) so €) 6 @ 6.6 « « 6 


Underline the best hope for the future in this region. 
1. Farming. 

2. Manufacturing many products. 

3. Forestry. 


STUDY SHEET XII 


Arctic PASTURES 


Look at the map on page 204, and find section G. Itisin the very northern- 
most part of Europe and is a very interesting region. Read sections 488 
through 491, page 291-250. Read these through carefully and then see how 
many of the questions below you can answer. After you have answered all 
you can, turn to the book and find the answers to the other questions. 


I. 


ya 


Ill. 


IV. 


If you were in the European Tundra Region, how could you tell that 
you were in Europe and not in North America? ................. 


Write below the parts of the reindeer’s body which are particularly 
well suited to the climate in which it lives. Write after the first part 
two ways in which it helps the reindeer. 


| eee ete 4) gi SINEAD AN EN Carl Der iia ee ae in ste @ 
EI eo dig Sala Gu thatn RO TAS wipe a PAIL AAD IU asl NL OR 
Below is an outline for the facts about the Laps. Fill in the blank 
spaces. 

i ACL R EAS Soa CORN Sa cA AM oot ag 


MANY ERTS CEO VECAING SEOUL eva ors shite ais yard als doy, ca: ait ei 
co MNS Vee SET Bice cagPepet at Ao ho AN ge aU a i ay aR A 
PEMELET A ELLY ean ih asia ers sie edie ah ele Si tere a aig, oan 
5. Uses of reindeer. 


I A a, Ye Oe AVG COS MSE ASN ee tec ae a 
Neg peel ape eal a aa NURI Neale BN Sollee UPI Ee en a a 
PMP LAY TTS AOU SLENIYS BOI Leva ecee Gh eke bel cars ie; Sak aig ere ta Gels soaks 
LIE ap VIN HERON YO A le nas ae a UE a 
= Rig sect ay a Rg vo OS 
He NY UZ ool a iti oe CH ROO aS Aap ORES Ba 


Underline what will probably happen in this region in the future. 
1. Become an agricultural country. 

2. Become a manufacturing country. 

3. Little change likely. 


. Turn to the map on pages X and XI in the front of your book and 


find Spitzbergen. Fill in the blank spaces. 
EM GA DETLOI IA Ts hn sists Maicie ees 9 miles north of Norway and is about 


FO. A 


VI. 


VIl. 


VIII. 


Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 

the Rize OP Cay re tees Harbors in the southwestern part of 
this region are open from ................ tO’... oh alee ee 
which isiaboutstiencas - ccjee ee ie months. 

Before the War this country was visited chiefly by ................ 
who sometimes stayed to hunt \..55.0525 "4.2/0 
ACS Reema Pea Teg ey 


Underline the chief use at present for Spitzbergen. 
1. Summer resort. 

2. Coal field. 

3. Manufacturing center. 


What country now owns the coal mines? ................-0ce- 
About how many days are there in Spitzbergen which are dark all 


CAV OR ie Hon bol Reh Ne About how many each year when it is 
lightiall dayaiu nice. pean tee 


Look at question 5 in the second column on page 250. Write three 
answers to it below. 


oceocesereeeeeeeweee ere eee eee eee ee eee eee ee eee eee ee eee 


TEST VI 


Put a T before each true statement and an F before each false one. 


os te sal ens @ 


eo a'e te ee 8 6 


2/0) Pi 6: of @ i us 


eoereevvee 


ceeoeeorerve 


jo, 0) le 0 (2) 68 16 


eercevreee 


cere vcerste 


eereeere 


ele) £00) 6 6 a." 


Sp te, & Ss of eo is 


eeee ee ee 


S| 9ue) 0, 908 


1. The extreme northern part of Europe is like that of North 
America. 


2. The belt of evergreen forest reaches only from the Scandinavian 
Mountains to the Ural Mountains. 


3. All of this northern part is mountainous. 
4, There are many swamps and lakes in this section. 


5. There are more people in the northern forests of Europe than in 
those of North America. 


6. There are no animals in these forests. 
7. The farmers work in summer and rest in winter. 
8. These men make all of the living by farming. 
9. The rivers are valuable to the lumbermen. 
10. They build canals around the waterfalls. 
11. The lumber is sent to many parts of Europe. 
12. The ships carry lumber winter and summer. 
13. The Volga is an important waterway. 
14. Sweden has great iron mining districts. 
15. This iron cannot be shipped in winter. 


16. Nine tenths of the world’s platinum has come from the Ural 
mountains since the World War. 


17. Platinum is heavier and more costly than gold. 


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Appendix 77 


. The Finns are intelligent and well educated. 
. Finland was formerly governed by Russia. 
. This section seems likely to increase rapidly in wealth and 


population in the future. 


. The treeless tundra is just south of the evergreen forests. 

. This tundra is similar to that in North America. 

. The reindeer’s hoof is suited to the ground here. 

. The reindeer moves south to a warmer climate in the winter. 
. The people in Lapland are white. 

. The reindeer furnish food and clothing for the Laps. 

. The Laps first lived in Asia. 

. The Laps build attractive houses. 

. The reindeer farmers in Alaska were taught by Laps. 

. The tundra could feed many more reindeer. 

. The finding of minerals in this section might change it con- 


siderably. 


. The warm ocean currents aid transportation to Spitzbergen. 
. Most of the islands of Spitzbergen are covered with glaciers the 


year round. 


. Fur-bearing animals are found in Spitzbergen. 

. Norway owned the islands until 1919. 

. Large deposits of coal are found in Spitzbergen. 

. The mines in Spitzbergen are worked only in summer. 
. The mines are lighted by electricity. 

. During the two months in summer there is no sunset. 
. Coal was only recently discovered on this island. 


II 


STUDY QUESTIONS BASED ON ADVANED GEOGRAPHY 
BY FRANK M. McMURRY AND A. E. PARKINS 


I. 


af 


III. 


IV. 


THE CHINESE REPUBLIC 
Its Curer Divisions 


The first paragraph states that the four dependencies of China 
contain two thirds of the area of the entire republic. Write the names 
of the four dependencies in the spaces on the left below. Write in 
the next space the population of each. Add the populations. Then 
see what part of the total population of the Chinese Republic is made 
up by the four dependencies. 


Ce ey 


¢ 0 © 0 © 0 & 8 6 5 0 & Oe oS 6 oe 6 86) 8s ce) elm 6 


ce #5 @ © © © en0 © 6 6 0 @ 6 se © 8S Oe Cee ee 


The total population of the four dependencies is about 
(Underline the correct one) 

one half 

one third 

one sixth 

one twelfth 


Underline the two reasons for the small population of the four de- 
pendencies of China. 

1. There are few people there. - 

2. Too high and cold. 

3. Too dry. 

4. Not many agricultural crops raised. 


Underline the rivers which rise on the borders of Tibet. 


Ganges Lena Irrawaddy 
Yangtse Indus Mekong 
Hwang Tigris Euphrates. 


Write below the name of the kind of animal herded by the nomads 
of China’s dependencies, which we do not have in the United States. 
Then underline in the next column the name of the animal which it 
is most like. 
Camel 
as gested CLT APs Cattle 
Sheep 
Goats 
Horses 
78 


V. 


VI. 


VI. 


VII. 


VIII. 


IX. 


Appendix 79 


Underline the reason why Southern Manchuria is unlike the rest of 
the Chinese dependencies. 

1. It is farther south. 

2. It is good for agriculture. 

3. It is much larger. 


The line numbered 1 below represents the size of China proper. 
Measure this line and then draw a line at the place marked 2 which 
will represent the size of the United States. 

ROR ce est 

2. 

The line marked 3 represents the population of China. Measure it 
and then draw a line at 4 which is the right length to represent the 
population of the United States. 

“Sie Oy) Da 

4, 


Underline the phrase which best expresses the history of China 
to date. 

1. Slow, gradual, continuous progress. 

2. Great progress in early history and little in later history. 

3. Very fast progress both in early and late history. 


FAVORABLE CONDITIONS FOR AGRICULTURE 


Below are written the conditions which are unfavorable to agriculture’ 
Underline either or both, according to whether they can be remedied 
be man, and write opposite those that you underline how they may 
be overcome. 

TRINA UIIGRIT | BLODORL 5. sie ci0) gins 2 clea ony aie aneh «Bs 

MPeIIEY. Daria OF COUNLPY «05.6 < 4 bc nig eke nls visio eos 

2 EOE ELDN G Pod SNCS on Ag eae ee ae 


Cross out the wrong words. 


The temperature and rainfall of China are unfavorable to agri- 
favorable 
culture. Long droughts like those in India are eee. \ The 
infrequent 


: . rich 
soil as a rule is . 
barren 


FAVORABLE CONDITIONS FOR MANUFACTURING 


Write below the names of the two minerals which we always think 
of in connection with manufacturing. If they are found in large 
quantities in China, write “‘Yes’’ in the next space. In the spaces 
below, write the names of four other minerals found in China. 


80 <A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


REASONS FOR LAcK OF PROGRESS 


On pages 413, 414 and 415 are given the reasons for the backward condition 
of China. Read this section through carefully, with this question in mind: 
What changes must take place in China to make her thoroughly progressive? 
Then answer the questions below. 


at 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


VI. 


VII. 


Below are written the two ways which a country uses to communicate 
with other countries. After these are blank spaces. In the blank 
space after each way, write the reason why China has used that way 
so little. A number of possible reasons are given below. Be sure to 
select the best one before you write it in the blank space. 


Reasons. 

Pacific Ocean little used until modern times. 
Lack of sail boats. 

Lack of ocean vessels. 

Long, difficult and dangerous routes. 

People do not like land travel. 


Write on the first space below the amount of mileage of railroad in 
China. Write in the second space the amount of mileage in the 
United States. Is there much difference?............... (Write 
yes or no.) Which has the larger area, the United States or China? 


eee € we 8 © be © 0 ee 08 68 ee he ee ee 8 ee ee 06060606 ee 6 6 it 6 te & & Pe ee we eee eee 


There are two kinds of boats in the picture on page 413. Write their 
names below. In the third space, write the name of the kind of boats 
which are used on the Yangtze but which are not shown in the picture. 


Dew pth clig tal ethan AA ods Eetataa tere 
FO PEALE Ieias§ Arca Gent Ta UC, 2) 
Does the amount of river traffic in the picture look as though there 
was little river traffic?................ Is the river traffic compara- 


. If it started at New York and extended west, to what great city 


would the Grand Canal reach? .).). )cne.u, 00. eee 


The pictures in this chapter show two methods of overland trans- 
portation. Write them here. 1 ..:............s50e ee 


Underline the best reason below why automobiles are not used. 

1. Automobiles are too expensive. 

2. The Chinese do not like new things like automobiles. 

3. The roads are not wide enough or good enough in the country for 
automobiles. 


Underline the two best reasons why ancestor worship does not make 
for progress. 
1. It teaches children to respect their parents. 


VIII. 


II. 


a. 


IV. 


Appendix 81 


2. It sets too great value on the past. 
3. It makes foreigners unwelcome. 
4. It was taught by Confucius. 


Underline the best reason why the character of China’s government 


hindered the progress of the people. 


1. The tribes of the northwest conquered the peace-loving Chinese. 

2. The conquerors were herdsmen and distrusted European manu- 
facturing and inventions. 

3. The Great Wall had to be built to keep out invaders. 


REcENT Promising CHANGES 


. Underline the correct answer. 


The old government of China was overthrown and a republic es- 
tablished. 

1. Five years before the World War. 

2. Two years before the World War. 

3. At the time of the beginning of the World War. 


Underline the best reason for the quarrels between sections of China 

since the establishment of the republic. 

1. There are too many people in China. 

2. The Chinese are largely an agricultural nation. 

3. Most of the people are too ignorant to make intelligent citizens 
in a democracy. 


Underline the best reason why the location of Pekin is an unfortunate 
one for the capital of China. 

1. It is too far from the center of the country. 

2. It is near the sea coast. 

3. It was the capital of the old monarchy. 


Underline the two means of transportation which have been most 
improved in China. 
1. Railroads 4. Roads 
2. Canals 5. Aeroplanes 
3. Rivers 
. Cross out the wrong words. 
Many : sah ig: ; : 
Hit Chinese are now studying in foreign countries. 


Their reason for this is to learn from other countries for the benefit 
the benefit 
of these countries| 


of China 


How so GREAT A PopuLuATION Has BEEN ABLE TO SUPPORT 


VI. 


ItsELF BY AGRICULTURE 


How many times as large as the average Chinese farm is the average 
Meret TGt) |! LOMTA Cuts mM o! velys Aeneas kus wh GK Sue RO Underline the 
best definition of intensive farming. 


82 <A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


VII. 


Vill. 


XI. 


XII. 


1. A farm where the people work intensely hard. 

2. A small area is made through careful cultivation to yield large 
crops. 

3. A farm which is large and fertile. 


Cross out the wrong words. 


Te Ching he or three 


crops a year can be raised. 
four or five tiated 


hand 


Agriculture (except for the slight amount done by the Indians) has 
been carried on in this country for about four centuries (444 years). 
In China it has been carried on for over forty centuries (4000 years). 
How many times as long in China as in America? ................ 
In which country is the soil as a whole in better condition at the 
PFOseNG GMS TYG hte bo ater en ame kee Canes 


The work is done by hae SIGE . 


. Underline the best reason why soil at the bottom of rivers and canals 


in China is good soil. 

1. It is moist from the river and canal water. 

2. It has been carried by the water from mountain districts which 
have never been farmed. 

3. It is soft and not mixed with rocks. 


. Fill in the blank spaces. 
Three ways of saving rain water. 
UWE eva Ue ma RUM I catee Ny ait: the fields.3 2.05205... :«.0/4'.+ ae the 
hillsides. 3. Planting in ridges with ................ between to 


hold the water. 


Underline the best title for the first two paragraphs in the section 416. 

1. How the Chinese use for fertilizer everything that has value for 
the soil. 

2. How the Chinese make and use compost stacks. 

3. The use of ashes and manure for fertilizer. 


Nitrogen helps in the growth of plants. Put the figure 1 in front of 
the crops below which take nitrogen from the soil, and the figure 2 
before those which help to put it back. 

Rice 

Clover 

Soy beans 

Barley 
Arrange in two columns the crops listed below, putting opposite one 
crop a crop which puts back into the soil what the first one takes out. 


Mulberry orchards Barley Soy beans Rice Clover 


Z. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


Appendix 83 


Tue GREAT VARIETY OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS 


Arrange in the two columns the food products of China. Be sure to 
put each food product under its proper heading. 


Vegetable Animal 
ME 8 one Sector h dow Orie eit Mer tiae 2 hers Ua oN eho co a 
a ile Se aes Ri YL AA Beat Ee ABER Tere eS al ct y 
LARA RE Eile sti ge OE} EB Ab er OR geet ae ee ES ae Tk (ee ee 
RRR Tet ei, Wack Tiegh se ea! ORO ee INR Uw ea Og 


Now underline the two most important vegetable products and the 
one most important animal product. Write an N before the vege- 
table products raised in the north and an S before those which are 
raised farther south. 


The United States is about 150 years old. China has been famous for 
one product for 2000 years. Write the name of the product here .. 
Raves ios About how many times as long as the United States has 
existed has that product been cultivated in China? ................ 
Another geography gives the following figures for the world’s pro- 
duction of raw silk. 


PETAL DeV Tae AMEE sia 4's) 4:51 4 oa Died eeeeaeme nas a 48,800,000 pounds 
UATE! Ue SR Pc eS SL PL 42,800,000 pounds 
MPR ert IR ehh sis) «why eat ale dela abe naye vies 4,000,000 pounds 
CALL LRM GS wedge sd Won IEE Sra lute. vigial's ‘> 2,200,000 pounds 
EATERS Rs Se A Ra ERS 300,000 pounds 

PLURAL RIERA «ots ake tS Ae uate a ges pounds 


Add these figures. Notice the per cent of raw silk which China pro- 
duces according to your book. Write it here 
From the table above, does this look correct? 


ig @ Se ays. 8) 16) mee Oe 8) 6s we) ew 


ae, & o's) 's''0) 9) 6.161 6 6. 6, @ 16 @ & ae 6 6) 


Look at the picture on page 417. What are the man’s trousers prob- 
MIMUMITIAIS HL PU eE Eien cores oe k Was the raw material for them 


Cross out the wrong words. 

China is ae the United States because it is (°"*™} to get from 
unlike hard 

one part of the country to another. Transportation in China is ! et 


and in the United States it is <“*”}, 
hard 

comfort| , 

famines 


DANGER THREATENING CHINA FROM OTHER NATIONS 


This leads in China to 


. Judging from page 418, which nation has done China the greatest harm 


ibgmming her JANG’. a... ste ke es Write on the left below the cities in 


84 A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


China which are held in whole or part by other nations and on the 
right the names of provinces or districts of which the same is true. 


Cities Provinces or Districts. 
1A oy 5 ON na Ne Cie AN y UAE Fy Aad RAS Li's. ooo late ate cen 
Beit ae Sd babel WE MA Ee) aes te Oot Slat aera tee 2c, ‘a » 6k pale mete aaa 
Oe MEU bie ee Ran abie eee ets PERE eet, ay ebe PP eee 


Below are the advantages which other nations hope to get from China 
and also the advantages which China will receive from other nations. 
Arrange these in the blank columns under the correct heading. 


1. Great mineral resources. 4. Higher standard of living. 

2. Immense trade. 5. Railroad concessions. 

3. More employment. 6. Cleaner and more sanitary cities. 
Advantages for China. Advantages for Other Nations. 

p PEAR NIL AA es eh tt Leo. ors nes Alias « beat eae ena 

yar eC AP tn eee pe Ln De alps els chin Alopal w ole cate eae ale ane 

Be Oe atts oe cee nat te ee ae Be. stn 0% ol Bd d wld sai Sigt eRe ee 

SIBERIA 


There are two distinct parts of Siberia. The one consists of the southwestern 
part and is described on page 398. It is quite different in climate and resources 
from the great northern part of the country. 


I. The area of the United States is about 3,000,000 sq. miles. About 


II. The climate here is much like that of two other countries nearby. 


eereceevrecesreeceoe ee ee eee eee ee ee 


III. Turn to the map on page 17 and find the amount of annual rainfall 
in southwestern Siberia. Write it here ................-.-..--- 


IV. Underline the best reason why grazing leads to a nomadic life. 
1. Animals soon eat up all of the grass and their owners have to 
move on. 
2. People whose chief industry is grazing like to move around freely. 
3. Grazing does not require the erection of permanent buildings as 
manufacturing does. 


V. Underline the best answer. 
An oasis is 
1. A barren spot in the desert. 
2. A great river. 
3. A place in the desert where there are springs of water. 


VI. Underline the best reason why rugs are the chief manufactured 
articles of this region. 
1. The people have plenty of time to weave the rugs. 


Vit 


VUE 


ux. 


Appendix 85 


2. Grazing being the chief industry, there is plenty of wool from the 
sheep, and rugs are made from wool. 

3. Primitive people like to weave better than they like to do any- 
thing else. : 


Put the word ‘‘Into”’ before the products below which are probably 
shipped into Siberia and word “Out” before the products which 
you think are shipped out of Siberia. 


Seg eaves 1. Rugs We dea ae Wy DeAt 
4 ey 2. Wool Vien te Ca LA LeS 
i Eta See 3. Cotton cloth ........6. Metal tools. 


Fill in the blanks below from the tables on page 477. 


Area Population 


SONS EAR 8 gt Peal) MBRET ee tre 2 inet A SMT OA A OS ON PTO a 
ie MEE. Tlie Soma th niet en RRUNEL AL |. wala Gill's tay kb wae ae 
POMC Les 6 ty Acta Ch CL NS rer ae ay wo ea Wi Wes 
Look at these facts and then answer the questions below. 
1. About how many times as large as the area of the United States 
are the combined areas of Canada and Siberia? ................ 
2. About how many times as great as the combined populations of 
Canada and Siberia is the population of the United States? 
3. Underline the best reason for (2) above. 
a. United States has a better climate and better resources than 
either Canada or Siberia. 
b. United States is an older country than either of the others. 
c. United States is more progressive than Canada or Siberia. 


Write an F before the products below which are raised in the Siberian 
forest and an A before the products which are raised in the agri- 
cultural plain around Tomsk. 


Wheat Coffee Rice 
Cotton Furs Tobacco 
Corn Butter Timber 


. Underline the minerals found in Siberia. Underline twice those two 


that are most important for manufacturing. 


Coal Copper Lead 

Diamonds Tin Silver 

Iron Zinc Graphite 
. Underline the industries that furnish the best prospects for the future 

of Siberia. 

1. Agriculture. 5. Grazing. 

2. Manufacturing textiles. 6. Manufacturing small articles 

3. Manufacturing iron products. like watches and jewelry. 


4. Commerce and trade. 


86 <A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 
INDIA 


Wuy Inpustries IN InpIA Have Mapr Stow PrRoGREss 


I. Underline the two best reasons why industries in India have made slow 

progress. 

1. India was too prosperous during the Middle Ages. 

2. The religion of India encourages ignorance in the great mass of 
people. 

3. The people of India are not interested in manufacturing for the 
people of other countries. 

4. The people of India hoard their money instead of investing it. 


II. Write the word “India” before the statements below which tell what 
the people in India do with their money; and the words ‘United 
States’”’ before statements which tell what the people in the United 
States do with their money. 

Pn tera Tetrte teeth Mees 1. Hoard the money. 

SPN MR AataRE Or aye Seoette 2. Build palaces. 

Sice RPA ons waseielene 3. Melt gold into bars and hide them. 
Lee) be Ae cone 4. Invest money in mines and factories. 
i uevcainin dere mite 5. Purchase elephants for mere display. 
estar te cacthy es Mb waaay 6. Build railroads. 


III. Underline the chief industry of India. 
Mining Agriculture Fishing 
Grazing Dairying Lumbering 


How so GREAT A POPULATION ATTEMPTS TO MaKe aA Livina THROUGH 
AGRICULTURE 


I. Underline the correct statement. 
1. India covers more degrees of latitude than the United States. 
2. India covers fewer degrees of latitude than the United States. 


II. Underline the two best reasons why there is a wide variety of climate 
in India. 
1. There is a great range of latitude in India. 
2. Many different agricultural products are produced there. 
3. The surface of the country varies greatly in altitude. 
4. India is very densely populated. 


III. Arrange the three altitude levels below in their proper order from 
North to South. That is, write in space (1) the level farthest north, 
in space (2) the next south, and in space (3) the level farthest south. 


a. Broad, flat plain. PN iy 
b. Lofty mountains. De cu lepis ee Sh) Pee ee 
c. Plateau 2000 feet high. 5 I A 


IV. Below you will find the names of India’s agricultural products on the 
left side of the paper; and opposite them, certain statements about 
them. Some of these statements are true and some are not. Cross 
out the ones which are not true. 


Wil. 


VII. 


VIII. 


IX. 


Appendix 87 


Wheat - Raised in northeastern part of country. 
Raised in northwestern part of country. 
Not grown extensively. 
Grown extensively. 


Rice Raised in northwestern part of country. 
Raised in northeastern part of country. 
Millet Is an important product. 
Is not an important product. 
Sugar Cane Little grown in India. 
Most extensively grown of any place in the world. 
Tea Grown in northeastern India. 


Grown in Ceylon. 
Requires cheap hand labor. 


Cotton Grown in western part of India. 
Grown in central part of India. 
Superior to that grown in United States. 
Exported to Great Britain. 
Inferior to that grown in United States. 


. Write in the spaces below three other agricultural products of India. 


Da Ee \C a a 


Underline the things about agriculture that the people of India 
understand well. Cross out the things about which they know little 
or nothing. 

1. Rotation of crops. 

2. The use of tractors for plowing. 

3. The use of farm machinery. 

4, Adaptation of crops to soil and climate. 


The average farm in America is 130 acres. The average farm in 
Kurope is 14 acres. Is the average farm in India larger or smaller 
than that in America? 026... ee Is it larger or smaller than 
the average in Europe? ................ 

Cross out the wrong words. 

The chief animals used in India for farm work are: 

Donkeys 

Horses 

Cattle 

Water buffaloes 


Write the words “wet” or “dry” after the monsoon to which they 


belong. Then write in the next space the products which are raised 
when that wind is blowing. 


Summer Monsoon............. Does AR Fi Oi, mete ae 
Dek tates act Se A oe 
Weinter Monsoon i) >. fe sen fous Dy Wane Ad ond de anaes Monee ee ite 


88 


A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


X. How many crops a year are raised in India, dependent on the two 


I; 


Il. 


II. 


IV. 


Mi; 


MONSOOHST Cs ee eee eee 


Wuy Inp1aA Has Been a LAND or Many FAMINES 


Underline the best general reason for famines in India. 
1. Large number of people. 

2. Failure of crops. 

3. Ignorance of people. 


Cross out the wrong words. 


The rainfall in India is prenlae This means that a ae part of 
irregular} * large 


the water can be used for agriculture. 


The rainfall in New York is about forty inches. About how many 
times as great is the rainfall in the Himalaya Mountains?............ 
Underline the name of the monsoon which may fail and bring on crop 
failure. 

Winter Monsoon. 

Summer Monsoon. 


. Underline the best reason why railroads have helped in times of famine. 


1. The people can get away from famine country. 
2. The railroads mean great civilization of the people. 
3. The railroad can bring food to the famine sufferers. 


Write below the two sources of water for irrigation in India. 


© 2 0 8 6-018 © 0 eo) « a é 0 6 6 6 @ 6 0 e 8 6 6 FS © ee 


How THE British CAME INTO POSSESSION OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 


15 


II. 


ITI. 


IV. 


Underline the sentence which tells best why Great Britain took over 

the control of India. 

1. Great Britain sent out an army and conquered India. 

2. The British did not like to see so many rulers in the country. 

3. British traders induced England to take India to protect their 
interests and to settle disputes. 


The area of New York State is about 50,000 square miles. Is the area 
of the largest territory ruled over by one ruler in India larger or smaller 
than the area of New’ York State? .........0...... oc 


Write below the names of the four chief cities of India. Underline 
those that you think are probably engaged in shipping Indian products 


to Europe. 
Lie ists pastel eit ole beac ee ete Ba. eo: ele. veh 9.00 bieiere'e etna taten ann 
Biss ¥idee'O bier oteta’gd cle leita oe eat Be aie esis wre dleipiase ohe'ats 6 oe 


If 
STATISTICAL TABLES 


HOW TO READ THE TABLES 


In the left hand columns of the tables are given the results of the tests of 
groups using the study question method; in the right hand columns, the 
results from the control groups. In all tables except summaries, the number 
of pupils is given first. Then follows the mean, or arithmetical average, of the 
group in the true-false test. 

The SDn or standard deviation of the mean is a measure of variability. 
It is obtained by dividing the standard deviation of the distribution by the 
square root of the number of cases. 

The SDsg; is the standard deviation of the sum, for the experimental groups. 
It is obtained by squaring both of their SDn’s and extracting the sauare root 
of the sum. The SD,» is the same measure for the control groups. 

To find the E.C., or experimental coefficient, the sum of the means of the 
control groups is subtracted from the sum of the means of the experimental 
groups. The number thus obtained (D) is divided by 2.78 times the SqDa.! 

The summary tables are to be read in the same way as the above except, 
that in them the SD or standard deviation is given. This is the square root 
of the mean squared deviations of the scores from their mean. 

Note. The distribution tables upon which the calculations in the following 
tables were based may be obtained from the author by any student of educa- 
tion who desires to check the computations. 


TABLE I 


EXPERIMENTS AT SPEYER SCHOOL 
First Two WEEKS 


Group Study Question Method Group Control Method 
Number icc sh ok 23.00 Numberavncio.. 23.00 
A GRIN. Cee kate 11.34 B Wea aay ioe es 8.13 
Sig Wh oe ea 1422 Eye vie tenis 1.53 
PALUMBETS ony sis ee 23.00 Number ie uucor.. 23.00 
B WISETO ree 12-65 A Mean seers sss 9.00 
4 8 Tae ese eS 1.73 rod I poll vet k eBUS ana aN 2.09 
Difference .. 6.86 SDs ..... Ah fy Le 4 Ba Da dee NB Fy ue 2 3.34 


E. C. = 6.86 + 9.28 = .739 


1 McCall, W. A., How to Experiment in Education, Chap. VIII. 
89 


90 A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


TABLE I (Continued) 
SEcOND Two WEEKS 








Group Study Question Method Group Control Method 
Number? 3). aun. 27.00 Number .cseueeee 22.00 
A Meéanvio eae iraae 12.96 B Mean»): .).¢2ee ee 12.45 
DLJ cde ee Oe 1.41 SD... open 2.06 
Number) cease 22.00 Number). .cee 27 .00 
B Mean Vues comes 14.68 A Mean ... ss .aul eee 13.63 
SD wos acto 1.81 SD. ss dee 1.13 
Difference .. 1.56 SDg, ..... 2729 -SDaa ew 2,35° BDp eee 3.28 
E. C. = 1.56 + 9.11 = .17 
Turrp Two WEEKS 
Group Study Question Method Group Control Method 
Number au: ae 25.00 Number ......... 26.00 
A Nes ety roe 16.72 B Mean ~... ..04'..°ueee 15.30 
Sacer Ce ee 1.10 SD. es eee 1.44 
Number). 0 O05 26.00 Numbers.) . hee 25.00 
B Meandind aut). 3 20.42 A Meéan '.4.50. fae 9.28 
SD agi oly some tae oe 1.60 SD .. 64 «oe 1.58 
Difference . 12.56 SDg, ..... 1.94 SDg..... 2.14 :BDyeeee 2.88 
E. C. = 12.56 + 8 = 1.57 
TABLE II 
SUMMARY—SPEYER ScHOOL 
Study Question Method Control Method 
Mean ‘Lintner ae 18.72: } Mean-2 2.4.0.4 2 12.09 
Mean ayer G aden tl ne ee 16.12.) Mean’ ..ii8. 4. eee 10.76 
SDL A a hoes een 6:53 | SDs)... 4 Ss, 8.50 
SD, Pek Se eeu ee 8.81.) SD3:...... 0.0. 8.11 
SD ied tie eee ceed eee 78H SD iliac ce eerste cle eee 1.00 
SD ead etos free eee 1:04 | SDag i. 2... Ae 93 
SDar as ale a bie seek hae i tel ee eer Pn ne ke er 1.28 
S Diag as. besten sone Wepre. Bee Fg eee ae 1.36 
Difference: 2.54 ei Bree a Se ek aa eee 6.99 
1D AA EU RAMS Henke myn. Mea ey et ye ho. 1.87 








Appendix 91 
TABLE III 
Retests at SPEYER ScHOOL 
First Two WEEKS 
Group Study Question Method Group Control Method 
WUMDOR ye. 3 ele 23.00 Nimbpere st Pie a 23.00 
A MOON Peery oe os. 10.23 B WME GRD S edie acd ek 8.39 
ns TBS Lei, Ae an ea 1.36 rd eased a fe later 1.18 
EN ITIMDE? Ooo Pees 23.00 amie 2.5 ye 23.00 
B TCR £934,855 7.30 A NEGRI oe ok: 6.82 
TED PS ES Penny ale 1.56 SED FY ed deat td eck gland 1.56 
Difference .. 2.82 SDs, ..... Bit olay fs 9d SSD ieee 2.84 
B. C. = 2.32 + 7.89 = .29 
Seconp Two WEEKS 
Group Study Question Method Group Control Method 
NUMbeMee ck. «5.5. 27.00 INV DGI I). sasdela ots 22.00 
A ECM a 10.63 B WWAGHEL ft eae a 10.18 
Lu pete ss eet 1.92 rod Fue enrne US ho Pe 1.60 
INUINDSFOO Ss 6s 22.00 ISOS gccty ht ome tenn DAN 27.00 
B IMIGR ties, vats oss 8.45 A INT CAT oie aa a 9.48 
Opa 1.54 PT) pe seat he aeetcne ot 1.62 
ererenCe 2 — Os. ia) |... 2/40) Das ...- 1.78 .8Dp ..... 3.35 
E. C. = —.58 + 9.31 = —.06 
Tarrp Two WEEKS 
Group Study Question Method Group Control Method 
DUT DAR rerio 25.00 Numbers seo. 26.00 
A VIGAT SClniee cay ais 15.84 B Wieaies See tieee es 12.30 
SD eRe sae: 1.68 Saree teh erate ete 1.78 
Number) ie oe. 26.00 Numberveswen to 26.00 
B Mean So teeeias 8.61 A Meant. vo cuaeeec3 5.40 
PSD) ar el abe etdeal eee 1.46 RSL Nil hoe hiv ve Sean ce ats War 
Difference .. 6.80 SDs; ..... BI Lette ee ea ELL 4 oe 3.16 


BK. C. = 6.80 + 8.78 = .77 


92 A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


TABLE IV 
SUMMARY—RETESTS AT SPEYER SCHOOL 


Study Question Method Control Method 
Mean Leo Ee ted oie ees 12°25"), Mean 2... .2. 0 ee 10.38 
Meanie i a a as $)14 | .Mean.3' 2.5.0)... eee 4300 
SDT (oadints dale Seca ee eee 8.60 } 8De sess fs. ee ee eee 7.64 
ot DMN PROT ERE LE Ce 8 VW) fey 7.205 PB Dats. oss 0 oa 7.68 
SID was i aly ete Le ee eee 99 | SDyae 6 sc dels oe vce 90 
CR TPP Siro aierh ta ile) eisiGe ey J 85 1 SDs... 6 dew els ole a 88 

SST day. io! oie) a kod tee 'arhis sian wel abd ec cr  c en e 1.30 

Sa ohh ie ee ae, (7a oe ee 1.26 

Differences ors is oe ae pee ee Ae A | 

Dy Uslaceer. Ge Se Ge el aed nan 1.81 

Experimental Coefficient .................. 538 

TABLE V 


EXPERIMENTS AT Pusitic ScHoou 43 
First Two WEEKS 


Group Study Question Method Group Control Method 
Number te 15.00 Number... 32.288 15.00 
A Mean hth seen i 14.53 B Mean ;..... Suen 9.6 
red Dh Feet beach lg Mm 1.93 SD i. eee 2.45 
Numbers. c2 (ue 15.00 Number. .: 2220368 15.00 
B Mipaiy ten eae 11.33 A Meéan ..: ) 250 
Ae eee hrate eee 2.19 Mh bs el eee 1.41 
Difference .. 6.66 SDg, ..... 2:92: SDasvivass 2.838 SDe see 4.06 


KB. C. = 6.66 + 11.28 = .59 


Seconp Two WEEKS 


Group Study Question Method Group Control Method 
Number evince 16.00 Number’ )3332 0) 15.00 
A Maan) erin <i. 18.00 B Mean Jocaiieeeen 11.26 
POL) ag. cist eee es Deer SD»)... jae 1.82 
Number (oo ota 15.00 Numbet “ys... een 16.00 
B Mean STS ass 11.86 A Mean if ebe oa 12.00 
Oars oe Bee at SDw i Seis 2.02 
Difference .. 6.60 SDs, ..... 2 2 See bes 2: 723SDp.. 29 3.99 


K. C. = 6.60 + 10.09 = .65 


Appendix 93 


TABLE V (Continued) 
Tuirp Two WEEKS 





Group Study Question Method Group Control Method 
PUGET? cece ha. 15.00 INUTADON 63, Clee rhs 15.00 
A BA CGT hy pci Bex 15.46 B M GAIN Tis Shim oh 13.46 
DRE sade e VERY Be 1.89 BUese ao ease aaa, 1.44 
INUMDOE a4 odo 15.00 INUMIDERD. baid ne. k 15.00 
B LGR econ ary ci. 15.73 A Meat A caatides se L738 
Sh ede tee welt 1.91 Saris Paiste wea kA 2.26 
Difference rag A SDs; Tieviaaee 2.68 SDs: a Teveié 2.68 SDp <ieueaye 3.79 


HK. C. = 2.00 + 10.53 = .19 


TABLE VI 


SUMMARY 
EXPERIMENTS AT PuBLic ScHoou 43 


Study Question Method Control Method 
SR os 4 Pah is pay Cone ae eae ae 11.44 
ct eS Dy Re ot PPIS TRE TRON IES Tes poe | Olle ERLE Sean an 12.43 
Oia 8 fa gr ES URS RAD Sls Cc al Ud isap Res Pd SN 7.19 
Oo a GE ce RE CTEM yids eat Vio ak 7.60 
MMM Seo! vo ais alot sss « DET 8 Bare are ee easkth tency me eralele ie oheler ye x 1.07 
es eo: PARTE D aae ll Cty ee AL hecde did Be ee Coe 1.10 

PLT ote ree me ra cee eee? 12.57 

Po ANOS ak ais ee aise ek ible teuckia eu 1,53 

PTITMTRTLEO Ay Nek t or reer i ree el, oki MY A Li 5.14 

LA Bs A RACE cA hes | NS 2.19 

Experimental Coefficient .................04. .84 

TABLE VII 
EXPERIMENTS AT ROSELLE, Passaic AND STAMFORD 
ROSELLE 
Group Study Question Method Group Control Method 
Wombergs rat ae 34.00 Numbersies ..o cs) se 16.00 
A [SE RN i Bis i 19.14 B NEGRI et tea Ae 18.06 
MU aa thie. tay bY. PS re eet ieee ou 1.19 
Mnmber >’. 3 Oeste 16.00 Number 3 yeh. 34.00 
B teary Sees tas 25.31 A Mesn i aes 20.17 
PREP Sei Gs 1G SD any cia Sa uci ak 1.14 
Difference ee. as SDs sent aks 1.59 SDsge Peperare 1.64 SDp os ae 2.29 


E. C. = 6.22 + 6.36 = .978 


94 A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 
TABLE VII (Continued) 








Passaic 
Group Study Question Method Group Control Method 

Ntiimber tae ca a 34.00 Number 77.2. ee 28 .00 

A Mean ioe srs ae 19.79 B Mean >, “itisusesm 23°25 
SD eee he CONE 1.42 SDx). ae 1.45 

Numberi v2. occ 8 ae 28.00 Number’ 7ia7 ee 34.00 

B Meaniisel Sots ae 2707 A Mean /..327 ue 23.52 
SL irk vote merehre vie 1.01 SDy? ) Pee 1.40 
Difference.... .09 SDg ..... 7 Ss Dae ee 1°81: Shae yeah! 


EK. C. = .09 + 6.97 = .013 





STAMFORD 
Group Study Question Method Group Control Method 

Number oo7. ee 20.00 Number. . .. aoe 28 .00 

A Mesh i8 ane 15.50 B Mean » . ss). 7.46 
ee SN a 1.97 SD... ee 1.29 

Number aca 28 .00 Number:. ... 2 20.00 

B Mean vine). civcnicen: 15.46 A Mean .....30eeee 11.70 

ted Beane: pew Sakuma nes a 1.18 Sar: «css 3 see 1.97 
Difference . 11.80 SDs; ..... 2:29: BDes yan 2.35. SDs 3.28 


K. C. = 11.80 + 9.11 = 1.29 


TABLE VIII 
SUMMARY 
ROSELLE, PAssAIc AND STAMFORD 
Study Question Method Control Method 

Mean a Aca et 18.56:]'"Mean)2 . 24:4. 02.40 ee 15.95 
MGAN.4 sain cnooka mae iue 22.16 1 Mean 3... «+6 s «cle 19.54 
SD ee ee Ae Ga ee 2a 7.91 | 8D. os eee 9.48 
Ni BR EOS 1S. RPA BR 7:64.) 8D; )..5. 0D. ee 8.95 
SD Bae Eh es rere 84°) SDyae oe eee pak 
SD tat ie ct Pea are ee 90 |) SDais 2.0 ee 95 

Dia abe unc ails Woe leh a ae eee 1°25 

Dag istic Ase ee a a eee 1.28 

BSD) Are ei din cass Gee Co ORIEN ee 1.90 

Difference sic cite Ie As els ea 5.20 

Experimental Coefficient ..........0. 00s cece 99 


Appendix 


TABLE IX 
SumMaryY oF ALL EXPERIMENTS 


Study Question Method 


Pee eer gts conn! Ste 16.22 
PEN a i iG ok ok oe 17.68 
ea Rc 7.54 
eo oe ls Si er hx 9.01 
1, Sek i SA Sa a 562 
1 5 ROARS ote een .65 

Peery ete ict a 
SLA EOI is or al le 
LGA ead Lowe 
Difference 


oo ere eee eer eeve 


Control Method 


WA aI ete eRe cle Ae ek 
IVE eT oF eudl a  eislu cate oleae aw a 
EL Peer eee aes VUE ha ate 
AML Oe AE edie BL NN Oe at i 
PLE Sane eer sa dei icnerunnebe eis wikis 
LI iMa Lerche te uN eee 

Eee Ay eee aia ha .0832 

al pa DOR he hegre aaa .0898 

ke ig Se Tak pies © aN 1.22 

Ea Mi ec pte ate Nee naa 5.50 


RC, a7 Oe oe 6.8 6 Ox a 9 (es Ge Fs 


95 










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INDEX 


Arithmetic, 8. 
Assignments, lesson, 5-9, 11, 18, 21, 
39. 


Bagley, W. C., 1. 
Branom, M. E., 1. 


Calculations, arithmetical, 30. 

Chances, statement of, 34, 44. 

Charters, W. W., 1. 

Comments of children on study 
questions, 40, 44. 

Courtis, S. A., 2. 

Criteria, in geography, 1-2. 

Curriculum, studies in, 1-2. 


Detroit, 9. 
Discussion, class, 8. 


E.C., 34. 

Effect, law of, 6-9, 39-40, 44. 

Evidence, subjective, 38, 43, 45. 

Examinations, 8, 24. 

Experimental Coefficient, 34. 

Experiments, previous in geography, 
Chap. I. 


Facts, learning of, 18-19, 30, 45; 
importance of in reasoning, 20. 


Gates, A. I., 6, 19-20. 


Hackensack, Chap. VII. 
Hillegas, M. B., 12. 
Hockett, John, 2. 
Horace Mann School, 10. 
Hosic, J. F., 32. 


Initial test, omission of, 33. 


Lecture Method, 19. 


97 


McCall, W. A., 32ff., 44. 

McMurry, F. M., 8, 10, 12, 45. 

McMurry and Parkins, Geography, 
4, App. II. 

Method, experimental, 4, Chaps. IV, 
V, VI; in geography, 10. 

Motivation, 8, 42. 


Note taking, 30. 
Number of children in experiment, 37. 


Objectively scorable questions, in 
silent reading, 4; in this study, 
Chap. III. 


Organization of ideas, 28. 


Passaic, Chap. VI. 

Pearson, H. C., 32. 

Penmanship, 9. 

Principles, application of in practice, 
3. 

Problem method, 10-12, 18, 45. 

Public School, 48, Chap. V. 

Puzzles, interest in, 9-10. 


Questions, in class, 7; in texts, 25— 
26, 46. 


Reaction, to printed page, 31, 45. 

Reading of assignment, 4, 6; as a 
method of learning, 30. 

Reasoning, 19, 28. 

Reavis, W. C., 1. 

Recitation period, 7-8, 18-19, 39. 

Retention, measurement of, 35. 

Roselle, Chap. VI. 

Rotation experimental method, 32ff. 

Rugg, H. O., 2. 


Satisfaction, see Effect, law of. 
Scoring of tests, 34. 


98 A Method of Directing Children’s Study of Geography 


Smith, J. Russell, Geography, 4, 21ff, 
33, App. I. 

Speyer School, Chap. IV. 

Stamford, Chap. VI. 

Stenographic reports of lessons, 11, 
12ff. 

Stull, De Forest, 12. 

Study, improvement of, 4, 20ff, 45; 
questions, 5; problem, 18. 

Suzzallo, Henry, 32. 


Tables, statistical, App. III. 
Techniques, in geography, 3-4; in 


other subjects, 3;, experimental, 
5-6. 

Testing, 7. 

Text, basal, 18. 

Thorndike, E. L., 9. 

Transfer, 42. 


Types of questions in this study, 27ff. 
Values, weighing of, 18. 
Washburne, Carleton, 2. 


Yule, G. U., 34, 44. 





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